Generation of Animals

This is the preface or introductory text spanning all columns.
Chapter 1-1 Animals' parts and their purposes explained through final causes. Four causes: final, formal, material, and efficient. We discussed the first three, now focusing on parts involved in animal generation and their efficient causes. Animals arise from male and female unions; some generate similarly, others from decaying matter. Non-moving animals and plants have no sex. Plants generate from seeds or spontaneously from decomposition.	Chapter 1-21 The question at hand is how the male contributes to generation and the role of semen. The semen does not become part of the embryo but rather imparts movement and form. This is evident as the active agent (male) does not become part of the created thing, similar to how a carpenter's material does not include parts of the carpenter. The semen acts as a catalyst for the embryo's development but does not merge with the embryo’s material. In some animals, like certain insects, the female's part acts more directly, while in others, such as birds and fish, the semen only affects the embryo’s quality, not its material composition.
Chapter 1-2 Discuss animal generation, emphasizing male and female roles. Male provides efficient cause, female provides material. Semen formation from both sexes proves their primary roles. Male generates in another, female generates within. Sex differentiation relies on unique faculties and anatomical parts. Male and female organs facilitate reproduction, showcasing the importance of sexual differentiation.	Chapter 1-22 The embryo develops within the female, who provides the material and environment for growth. The male's semen contributes not as a physical part but as a formative principle, akin to a carpenter shaping wood without leaving parts of himself in the final product. In animals where the male does not emit semen, the female's role in forming the embryo becomes more apparent. This is similar to a man providing materials to a worker. Nature's role in these cases resembles a modeller shaping clay directly rather than using tools.
Chapter 1-3 Testes and uterus vary among sanguinea. Some have only spermatic ducts; others have internal or external testes. Birds, reptiles, and oviparous quadrupeds have internal testes near the kidneys. Viviparous animals have testes in front. The uterus is always double, positioned near the pudendum or hypozoma, varying among species. Crustacea and cephalopoda have double membranes resembling a uterus. Insects have less discernible reproductive parts due to size.	Chapter 1-23 In animals, sexes are distinct, but in plants, reproductive functions are mixed, and they produce seeds from their own parts. The union of male and female in animals mirrors the combination in plants during reproduction. For animals that do not emit semen, the male and female unite until the embryo is formed, reflecting a union of reproductive elements. Testaceous animals, bridging animals and plants, do not fit neatly into either category, being generated from a mixture rather than a singular reproductive process.
Chapter 1-4 Testes exist for necessity or advantage, not essential for generation. Fish and serpents lack testes. Testes moderate copulation, ensuring reproductive restraint. Castrated animals' testes removal affects ducts, demonstrating testes' role in semen regulation. Birds' testes enlarge during mating season. Internal testes enable faster copulation, ensuring reproductive efficiency.
Chapter 1-5 Quadrupeds have penises, but birds and legless animals lack them due to anatomical constraints. Copulation organs' presence depends on body structure. Semen is collected before emission, with heat aiding its release. Birds and viviparous quadrupeds have different testes positions for reproductive efficiency. Hedgehogs' unique mating stance requires internal testes placement.
Chapter 1-6 Testes absence in some animals results from necessity and quick copulation. Fish and serpents lack testes for rapid mating. Fish copulate quickly to avoid suffocation, having matured semen ready for emission. Serpents lack testes and penises due to body length, using ducts for semen passage. Long ducts in serpents require intertwined copulation.
Chapter 1-7 Serpents intertwine during copulation due to body length and lack of attachment organs. They lack testes and penises, having ducts instead. Lengthy semen passage requires quick copulation. Serpents intertwine for close contact, resulting in slower mating than fish. Ducts enable efficient semen transfer despite body length.
Chapter 1-8 Uterus positions vary among female animals. Viviparous animals have a low uterus; cartilaginous fish have it higher. Oviparous animals produce perfect eggs, requiring a hot environment for hardening. Birds and oviparous quadrupeds have high uteri near the hypozoma. Fish lay imperfect eggs externally. Uterus position aligns with egg development needs.
Chapter 1-9 Viviparous animals differ in internal and external live birth. Mammals, cetaceans, and some quadrupeds produce live young internally and externally.
Chapter 1-10 Cartilaginous fish and vipers produce eggs internally but give birth to live young externally. Eggs are fully formed internally before live birth, highlighting their cold nature.
Chapter 1-11 Cartilaginous fish produce soft-shelled eggs due to insufficient heat. They hatch near the vagina, unlike viviparous or oviparous animals. Their uterus is near the hypozoma and stretches downward. Differences in uterus positioning are based on their oviparous and viviparous characteristics.
Chapter 1-12 The uterus is always internal for protection and maturation, while testes vary. Testes need shelter to mature semen, hence their internal or external positioning. The uterus position differs based on viviparous and oviparous characteristics, ensuring the fetus's safety and growth.
Chapter 1-13 Vivipara have distinct passages for solid and liquid excreta. In males, the same passage serves for urine and semen; in females, for urine and offspring. Uterus position varies: low in vivipara, high in ovipara, reflecting their reproductive methods.
Chapter 1-14 Bloodless animals have varied reproductive parts. Crustacea copulate like retromingent quadrupeds, with males having fine spermatic ducts and females a membranous uterus. Reproductive methods differ among crustacea, cephalopoda, insects, and testacea.
Chapter 1-15 Cephalopoda entwine at the mouth for copulation. The male discharges semen through a passage shared with excrement, located on the lower body surface. Some species also copulate with the male mounting the female's back.
Chapter 1-16 Insects' reproduction varies: some copulate and produce similar offspring, others generate scoleces from putrefying matter. Female insects are generally larger, and their reproductive organs are analogous to a uterus, producing conception results.
Chapter 1-17 Semen's role and origin remain complex. It may come from the entire body or specific parts, contributing to offspring's form and movement. The nature of semen and its connection to catamenia in animals needs further inquiry.
Chapter 1-18 The theory that semen comes from the whole body is flawed, as the resemblance of children to parents is evident in various features, not just physical parts. For instance, children often resemble distant ancestors, suggesting that traits appear across generations, not from every part of the parent's body. If semen originated from all body parts, the same would be true for plants, yet parts of plants can be removed or regrown without affecting seed formation. Additionally, if semen were to come from all parts, it would imply that offspring should embody all characteristics from both parents, which contradicts observations of generative processes.
Chapter 1-19 To understand female contribution to generation, we need to examine the nature of catamenia and semen. Catamenia, or menstrual discharge, must be distinguished from semen. Semen in males is a final secretion of blood, contributing to offspring formation. Catamenia, similarly, is a sanguineous secretion in females. Unlike semen, which forms parts of the body, catamenia represent a less concocted, weaker secretion. This aligns with the observation that females with catamenia don't produce semen. Catamenia serve as a reproductive secretion analogous to semen, indicating that the female's role in generation is through this discharge, not through semen.
Chapter 1-20 Some believe females contribute semen due to pleasure and discharge, but this discharge is not seminal. It is a liquid from the uterus found in some women, especially those with a feminine appearance. The discharge varies in amount and can be influenced by diet. Pleasure during coition involves both semen and spiritus, which is evident in both boys and impotent men. Women with impaired generative organs may experience diarrhea due to this unprocessed secretion. The catamenia, or menstrual blood, is a form of semen needing further processing. The female's contribution to generation is the material of catamenia, not semen itself.

Chapter 1-1 Discussed animal parts, final causes, male and female roles.	Chapter 1-21 Male semen imparts form, not material; it's catalytic, not physical.
Chapter 1-2 Animal generation, male and female roles, semen formation importance.	Chapter 1-22 Embryo grows in female; male's semen contributes form, not material.
Chapter 1-3 Testes and uterus vary among sanguinea, internal or external.	Chapter 1-23 Animals have distinct sexes; plants mix reproductive functions in seeds.
Chapter 1-4 Testes regulate copulation, not essential for all species.
Chapter 1-5 Penises absent in birds, legless animals due to anatomy.
Chapter 1-6 Testes absence for quick copulation in fish and serpents.
Chapter 1-7 Serpents intertwine during mating due to body length.
Chapter 1-8 Uterus positions vary, hot environment needed for eggs.
Chapter 1-9 Viviparous animals: internal and external live birth differences.
Chapter 1-10 Cartilaginous fish, vipers: internal eggs, external live birth.
Chapter 1-11 Soft-shelled eggs are produced by cartilaginous fish due to cold.
Chapter 1-12 Uterus is internal for protection; testes vary in position.
Chapter 1-13 Vivipara have separate passages for urine, semen, and offspring.
Chapter 1-14 Bloodless animals' reproductive parts differ; crustacea have unique methods.
Chapter 1-15 Cephalopoda copulate by entwining, using shared passages for reproduction.
Chapter 1-16 Insects vary in reproduction; some produce similar offspring, others not.
Chapter 1-17 Semen may come from entire body; its nature needs inquiry.
Chapter 1-18 Semen doesn't come from all body parts; it's more complex.
Chapter 1-19 Catamenia in females is a reproductive secretion, not semen.
Chapter 1-20 Females don’t contribute semen; they secrete catamenia, not seminal fluid.

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Chapter 3-1 We've discussed the sterility of mules and the reproduction of viviparous animals. Oviparous animals, like birds and some fish, differ in their reproductive processes. Birds produce hard-shelled, two-colored eggs, while cartilaginous fish have soft-shelled, single-colored eggs. Internal oviparous fish develop eggs inside but give birth to live young. Differences in uterus location among viviparous animals, such as humans and horses, contrast with oviparous species. Wind-eggs, found in non-flying, prolific birds, result from residual matter, unlike flying birds which lay fewer eggs. Egg color variation is due to the balance of white (hot) and yolk (earthy) components, affecting the egg's development.
Chapter 3-2 The principle of the male is attached to the uterus where the egg forms, making the egg asymmetrical. The sharp end, containing the principle, is harder and emerges last. This is similar in plant seeds, where the principle is attached at different points. Eggs derive growth not through an umbilical cord like mammals but from a soft membrane that hardens after laying. The sharp end initially resembles an umbilical cord but becomes the end of the egg. Eggs and seeds receive nourishment differently, with eggs needing protection and warmth, often resulting in spoiling if overheated or improperly incubated.
Chapter 3-3 Cartilaginous fishes, like the frog-fish, lay perfect eggs externally. Their eggs are solid for protection, unlike other cartilaginous fishes whose eggs are soft-shelled. The development process is similar to birds but differs because the fish eggs are one-colored, with no separate yolk and white. In cartilaginous fishes, the egg may remain attached to the uterus as it develops, unlike birds where the egg detaches. The umbilicus connects to the entire egg in fishes, providing nourishment. The young fish, similar to birds, consumes the egg's nourishment and grows, with the umbilicus remaining attached until development completes.
Chapter 3-4 Most fish are externally oviparous, laying imperfect eggs except for the frog-fish, which has unique characteristics as previously discussed. In other fish, development from the egg mirrors that of cartilaginous and internally oviparous fish, though their eggs grow rapidly and have a harder outer shell. Like a scolex, these eggs start small and grow independently. This growth, akin to yeast's expansion, is due to vital heat and excess yeasty matter. Since many eggs are produced, they start small to compensate for the time needed to grow, ensuring the species' survival despite high egg mortality.
Chapter 3-5 Evidence that all fish are oviparous comes from viviparous fish, like cartilaginous species, which are initially internally oviparous. Misconceptions about fish being all female or having similar reproductive differences to plants are incorrect. Male and female fish, including cartilaginous and oviparous types, have reproductive organs suited to their class. Unlike birds, fish eggs are imperfect and complete growth outside the mother, with males' milt aiding this. The union of sexes in fish, though brief and often unseen, is crucial for reproduction, contradicting the myth that fish conception occurs through female ingestion of semen.
Chapter 3-6 Similar myths about reproduction exist for birds and mammals. Some claim ravens and ibis mate via their beaks or mouths, and that weasels give birth through the mouth. These misconceptions arise from misinterpretation of observed behaviors and anatomy. In reality, birds and weasels have uteruses and proper reproductive structures, making these claims implausible. The confusion also extends to hyenas and trochuses, but these animals have normal reproductive anatomy. Misunderstandings stem from incomplete observations and incorrect assumptions about reproductive processes.
Chapter 3-7 The lack of visible egg discharge in cartilaginous fish compared to non-viviparous fish is due to differences in semen production and reproductive anatomy. Cartilaginous fish produce less semen and have their uteri located differently from other fish. Oviparous fish, with abundant milt, have males shedding it over eggs to aid development. This contrasts with birds, where eggs develop internally. Fish eggs grow externally and quickly due to their initial imperfection. The presence of milt helps preserve these eggs, highlighting differences between fish and birds in reproductive processes.
Chapter 3-8 Cephalopods and crustaceans lay eggs through copulation, similar to fish, but with differences in egg development and attachment. Sepias and squids lay eggs with complex structures, while carabi and similar species have different reproductive adaptations. Cephalopod males cover females with milt, creating a sticky mass, whereas carabi's hard-shelled eggs are less affected. These eggs grow after deposition, like fish eggs. The development patterns and reproductive behaviors of these animals demonstrate the variety in reproductive strategies and adaptations across species.
Chapter 3-9 The reproduction of insects and testacea involves producing a scolex, an early imperfect embryo stage. Most animals, including viviparous ones, have a scolex phase. Insects and testacea may appear to generate differently, but their early development often involves a scolex-like stage. These early forms are crucial for the transition to more developed stages, whether through copulation or spontaneous generation. Understanding these processes reveals the complexity and diversity of reproductive strategies in various species.
Chapter 3-10 The generation of bees is puzzling. They might produce eggs without copulation, akin to some fish. Theories suggest bees either bring young from elsewhere, generate them themselves, or bring some and generate others. If they generate young, it must be with or without copulation. There are several theories: bees generate bees, drones generate drones, or a combination of different kinds. However, none of these theories seem plausible when considering the characteristics of bees and the general facts about animal generation. It’s unlikely that bees are male and drones female, as no males usually work for offspring. Thus, the possibility remains that bees generate without copulation, similar to certain fish.
Chapter 3-11 Testacea, like snails and oysters, have a peculiar generation process. They can be spontaneously generated or produced from their own kind. Testacea resemble plants in some ways but also share characteristics with animals. They mainly appear in water, as their nature aligns more with aquatic environments. The generation of these creatures often involves spontaneous formation, especially in areas with putrefaction and rainwater. Their generation mirrors that of plants in some aspects, like bud formation. Testacea in water show more variety in form than those on land, due to the more dynamic nature of their environment.

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Chapter 4-1 We have discussed animal generation in general and specific classes. Since male and female are fundamental to living things, it's crucial to explore their origins. Some philosophers like Anaxagoras believe sex differentiation occurs in the germ or seed, while others like Empedocles think it happens in the uterus due to temperature variations. Democritus suggests differentiation depends on which parent's semen prevails. However, theories attributing sex differences solely to temperature or testis side are flawed. Instead, the essence of being male or female involves the body's capacity to concoct and process nourishment. Males, being hotter, can process semen, while females cannot, leading to different reproductive organs.
Chapter 4-2 The sex of offspring is influenced by several factors. More females are born when parents are young or old due to less effective vital heat. Moister, liquid semen tends to produce more females, while thicker semen results in more males. Copulation during northern winds, which reduce moisture, favors male births. Lunar phases affect menstrual cycles, with more catamenia during the waning moon. Shepherds note that even the direction of copulation can influence sex. Proper balance of male and female elements is crucial; excessive heat dries out semen, while insufficient heat fails to solidify it. Environmental factors, like water hardness, also impact fertility.
Chapter 4-3 The reasons for offspring resemblance and monstrosities stem from various causes. Children may resemble their parents or ancestors, with some showing similarities to one parent more than the other or to none at all. If the generative secretion is not properly concocted, the offspring may deviate from the expected form. The resemblance of offspring to parents or ancestors is influenced by the relative predominance of traits. In cases where traits do not prevail, the offspring may display characteristics of the opposite sex or resemble more distant ancestors. Monstrosities result from improper resolution of generative movements or excessive material, leading to defects or unusual forms.
Chapter 4-4 Democritus attributed monstrosities to two emissions of seminal fluid combining, causing confusion in embryonic development. Birds, with rapid copulation, often produce cross-colored eggs, while animals producing many young, like chickens, have more frequent monstrosities due to embryos growing together. In contrast, animals producing few young, such as elephants, generally do not exhibit such anomalies. Monstrosities are rarer in animals with singular births and more common in those with multiple young. Deficiencies or excesses in parts often arise from abnormal development or the mixing of generative materials. Cases like extra organs or misplaced internal parts illustrate these deviations.
Chapter 4-5 Superfoetation varies across species. In some animals, it's impossible due to size constraints, as their single embryo uses up all available resources. Larger animals, like elephants, can't superfoetate because their large embryos consume all the secretion. Conversely, animals producing multiple young, like some humans, may experience superfoetation if impregnation occurs shortly after the first. Superfoetation can also happen if the uterus remains open during gestation. In humans and mares, only some instances of superfoetation are noted, often resulting in abortion if the second embryo can't be fully supported. Animals with multiple young and sufficient discharge are more likely to exhibit superfoetation.
Chapter 4-6 Viviparous animals produce either imperfect or perfect young; one-hoofed and cloven-footed animals generally produce perfect young, while many-toed animals often produce imperfect ones due to their inability to nourish embryos fully. Some birds, like crows and sparrows, hatch blind young due to insufficient nourishment. Humans often see male infants born defective, a result of their greater natural heat and movement, making them more prone to injury. Unlike animals, human gestation can be more uncomfortable due to sedentary lifestyles and excess residual matter. Women in laborious societies generally have easier pregnancies.
Chapter 4-7 Mola uteri, or a retained mass of flesh resembling a tumor, can occur during pregnancy in women. This condition results from incomplete development of the embryo due to weak maternal heat, causing a hard, mass-like structure that remains in the body for years. It is rarely observed in other animals, possibly because women are uniquely prone to such uterine issues and have an excess of menstrual discharge, which contributes to the formation of mola.
Chapter 4-8 Milk is produced in female mammals for post-birth nourishment. It is only useful after the seventh month, as early milk is less concocted and thus less nutritious. Milk forms from residual matter left after the embryo’s development, which is initially used up for embryo growth. As the embryo matures, the milk becomes sweeter and more nutritious, necessary for newborns. The location of milk production in the upper body relates to the animal's need for nourishment and generative secretion. Milk’s nature is akin to blood, and its production halts if conception occurs.
Chapter 4-9 Natural birth in animals is typically head-first due to the larger size of the head compared to the body. The balance is such that the larger, heavier head leads, making head -first birth the natural outcome.
Chapter 4-10 Gestation periods generally align with an animal's lifespan, as longer-lived species typically have longer gestation periods. However, this is not a strict rule. Size of offspring affects gestation length, as larger animals need more time to develop. This principle applies to various species, including horses and elephants, with their extended gestation times reflecting their larger sizes. The timing of gestation and development often aligns with natural periods such as days, months, and years, influenced by celestial cycles like the moon and sun.

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Chapter 4-1 Sex differentiation arises from semen's role, not just temperature or sides.

Chapter 4-2 Factors like age, semen consistency, and environmental conditions influence sex.

Chapter 4-3 Offspring resemble parents or ancestors; monstrosities arise from deviations.

Chapter 4-4 Monstrosities arise from developmental issues with semen and embryos.

Chapter 4-5 Superfoetation occurs in some animals, rarely in larger species.

Chapter 4-6 One-hoofed, cloven-footed animals produce perfect young; many-toed, imperfect.

Chapter 4-7 Mola uteri forms from weak maternal heat, rare in animals.

Chapter 4-8 Milk forms late in pregnancy, necessary for newborn nourishment.

Chapter 4-9 Birth is head-first due to the larger head size.

Chapter 4-10 Gestation aligns with lifespan; larger animals need longer development.

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Chapter 5-1 We must examine how animal parts differ, such as eye color and voice pitch. Some differences, like eye color, are consistent within species, while others, like human hair color, vary more randomly. These differences can change with age or development. For example, infants' eyes are bluish due to weaker parts, but this changes with time. Eye color variations in animals can be linked to liquid composition and transparency. Dark eyes have more liquid and less transparency, making them less effective in low light, while blue eyes have less liquid, affecting their day vision. Heteroglaucous eyes in some species result from imbalances in fluid composition.	Chapter 5-21
Chapter 5-2 Accuracy in hearing and smell, like sight, relies on the purity of the sense-organ and its surrounding membrane. Both perception and distance perception depend on this purity. Animals with long nostrils or ears, such as the Laconian hounds or certain quadrupeds, can detect distant stimuli effectively because their sense-organs are extended and unobstructed. Humans, despite their limited distance perception, excel in distinguishing qualities due to the purity and minimal material of their sense-organs. Nature's design is notable in the seal, which lacks external ears due to its aquatic habitat, relying solely on internal passages for hearing.	Chapter 5-22
Chapter 5-3 Hair varies greatly among animals and individuals with age. Internally viviparous animals have hair-like structures, such as spines in hedgehogs. Hair characteristics include hardness, softness, length, curliness, and color, which change with age, especially in humans who may go bald or grey. Human hair gets coarser and thinner over time, while animals like horses also experience greying. Hair and feathers' qualities are influenced by skin thickness, moisture content, and environmental factors. For instance, thick-skinned animals have thicker hair, and cold weather hardens hair. Hair loss and regrowth patterns in humans differ from those in animals due to age and seasonal changes.	Chapter 5-23
Chapter 5-4 The color of hair in animals is often due to skin. In humans, grey hair is usually caused by aging, not disease, although leprosy can turn hair white. Grey hair results from a decline in bodily heat, leading to poor moisture digestion and decay. Unlike other animals, human hair does not change color with the skin; it remains unaffected by external factors like the sun or wind. Grey hair, akin to mold, results from a lack of heat, not a simple withering. Thus, hair can turn grey due to disease and regain its color with restored health.	Chapter 5-24
Chapter 5-5 Animals' hair changes due to varying brain moisture and heat, not age. Horses, with thin skull bones, show this most clearly. Cranes, however, might darken with age due to excessive feather moisture. Hair's greyness is a result of decay, not withering. Protected hair greys faster because it lacks environmental decay, while oil and water mixtures can slow this process. Grey hair in animals results from natural factors, not skin color. Uniformly colored animals change color less often, but variations can occur due to development or environmental conditions affecting their heat and moisture balance.	Chapter 5-25
Chapter 5-6 Animals exhibit various color patterns: uni-colored (e.g., lions), whole-colored (e.g., bulls), or vari-colored (e.g., peacocks). Whole-colored animals change color more due to environmental influences like water temperature affecting hair. Hot water turns hair white, while cold water darkens it. Variations occur because of natural heat and moisture, with white animals often being better flavored. The tongue's color also varies with animal color patterns. Some animals, especially those with omnivorous diets, are more vari-colored. Seasonal changes affect some animals, similar to how age affects humans, demonstrating a correlation between diet, environment, and color.	Chapter 5-26
Chapter 5-7 Voice varies in pitch, loudness, and texture across animals. Factors include age, sex, and physical strength. Young animals generally have higher voices, while older and castrated animals often develop deeper voices due to changes in air movement and vocal organ strength. Voice quality is influenced by the flexibility of the vocal organs, with roughness or smoothness resulting from their condition. Depth and height in voices arise from the amount and speed of air movement, and flexibility determines the voice's adjustability.	Chapter 5-27
Chapter 5-8 Teeth form in a specific sequence: front teeth first, then grinders. Front teeth are shed and regrown because they are smaller and less durable than the grinders, which remain for grinding food. This sequence is due to their early functional need and the jawbone's structure. Suckling heat accelerates teeth development, but their shedding and regrowth are driven by functional necessity and growth. Nature ensures teeth adapt to their role, balancing efficiency and durability in food processing and growth.	Chapter 5-28

Chapter 4 Human grey hair results from aging, not disease or skin.

Chapter 5 Animal hair color changes with brain moisture and environmental heat.

Chapter 6 Animal colors vary by diet, environment, and seasonal changes.

Chapter 7 Voice pitch and texture vary by age, sex, and strength.

Chapter 8 Front teeth develop first, shed, and regrow for efficiency.