History of animals

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1 Parts of animals can be simple or composite. Simple parts divide uniformly, like flesh. Composite parts do not, like hands. Limbs are composite with diverse parts. Animals' parts vary in form, size, and function. Soft parts include blood and flesh; dry parts include bones and hair. Animals differ in subsistence, habits, and actions. Some live in water, some on land. They vary in feeding, dwelling, activity times, and vocalization. Social behaviors differ, with some being solitary and others gregarious. Animals can be tame or wild, stationary or mobile, and possess diverse physical adaptations.

Chapter 2 All animals have organs for taking in food and excreting waste, which can be similar or different in form and function. The mouth takes in food, and the belly processes it. Wet and dry residues are expelled through bladders and intestines, respectively. Most animals possess both types of organs. These organs are crucial for survival and differ among species in structure and function. The alimentary system varies widely, reflecting the diversity in animals' dietary needs and excretion methods. The study of these differences provides insights into the adaptation and evolution of various species.

Chapter 3 Many animals have organs for excreting sperm, with males secreting into females. Essential organs include the womb or its analogue. Touch is the common sense in all animals, with organs varying between species. Moisture, like blood or its equivalent, is vital for survival. Touch is localized in homogeneous tissues, while active functions are in heterogeneous parts. Blooded animals, including mammals and some fish, contrast with bloodless ones like insects. This diversity in reproductive and sensory organs underscores the evolutionary adaptations in different animal species, reflecting their environmental interactions and survival strategies.

Chapter 4 All animals need moisture, contained in blood or its equivalent. Blooded animals have touch in uniform tissues, often blood-rich. Other functions like feeding and movement are in varied parts. Blooded animals include mammals, birds, and some fish; bloodless ones include insects and mollusks. The distribution and function of moisture and sensory organs highlight evolutionary adaptations across species. Blooded animals' complex organ systems contrast with simpler structures in bloodless ones, reflecting their diverse habitats and lifestyles. Understanding these differences aids in studying animal biology and evolutionary relationships.

Chapter 5 Animals reproduce viviparously, oviparously, or by producing larvae. Viviparous animals, like mammals, give birth to live young. Oviparous animals lay eggs, while larvae-producing animals release fully-formed young. Reproductive methods and structures vary widely, reflecting species-specific adaptations. Some animals have feet, others fins or wings. Movement methods include walking, swimming, and flying. Reproductive and locomotion adaptations are crucial for survival and success in diverse environments. These variations illustrate the evolutionary processes shaping species' development, emphasizing the importance of studying reproductive and locomotive adaptations in understanding animal diversity.

Chapter 6 Genera of animals include birds, fishes, and cetaceans, all of which are blooded. Another genus is the hard-shell kind called oysters, while the soft-shell kind includes spiny crawfish and various crabs and lobsters. Molluscs include two kinds of calamary and cuttle-fish. Insects are another distinct genus. All these creatures are bloodless. Of the other animals, the genera are not extensive. Some species are simple, like man, while others admit differentiation. Blooded quadrupeds can be viviparous with hair, like horses, or oviparous with scales, like reptiles. Serpents are generally oviparous, with some exceptions like the viviparous adder.

Chapter 7 The body is divided into the head, neck, trunk (thorax), arms, and legs. The head includes the skull, with the bregma or sinciput at the front, occiput at the back, and the crown in between. The skull covers the brain and has sutures, which differ between men and women. The face lies below the skull and includes the forehead, which can indicate personality traits. Other parts of the face include eyebrows, eyes, ears, and nose. The eyes are particularly noted for their variations in color, size, and other features, all of which can suggest different dispositions.

Chapter 8 The face, situated under the skull, includes the forehead, eyebrows, and eyes. The forehead's size and shape can indicate personality traits, such as slow to move, fickleness, quick temper, or distractibility. Eyebrows come in various shapes, with each shape indicating different character traits like softness, harshness, humor, or jealousy. Eyes, essential for vision, vary in color and size, affecting vision quality and character judgment. The central part of the eye, including the pupil and surrounding areas, also varies. Features like the nicks or corners of the eyes further contribute to facial expressions and character indications.

Chapter 9 Under the eyebrows are the eyes, naturally two in number, each with upper and lower eyelids and eyelashes. The eyes have a central moist part for vision, called the pupil, surrounded by the black and white parts. The corners of the eyes can indicate disposition. All animals, except ostracoderms and some imperfect creatures, have eyes. Viviparous animals, except moles, have visible eyes. The mole, though seemingly eyeless, has underdeveloped eyes covered by skin. This illustrates diversity in eye development among animals. The mole's concealed eyes highlight variations in visual capability across species, even within viviparous categories.

Chapter 10 Eye characteristics vary among animals. The white of the eye is similar across species, but the black part differs, with colors like black, blue, greyish-blue, and greenish, which is ideal for sharp vision. Humans uniquely have diverse eye colors, while other animals typically have one color. Horses may have blue eyes. Eye size varies, with medium-sized eyes being best. Eyes can protrude, recede, or be neutral, affecting vision and temperament. Receding eyes offer the sharpest vision. Eye movement under observation varies, indicating different dispositions, with steady eyes signifying the best nature. These variations highlight the complexity of visual adaptations.

Chapter 11 Ears, incapable of breathing, are part of the head. Alcmaeon's claim that goats breathe through ears is incorrect. The ear comprises an unnamed part and a lobe, made of gristle and flesh, resembling a trumpet shell internally. The inner ear, crucial for hearing, connects with the palate but not the brain. Eyes are also linked to the brain by veins. Most animals, except humans, can move their ears. Animals like dolphins and seals, though lacking visible ears, have hearing mechanisms. Ears vary in texture and size, indicating hearing ability and disposition, with medium-sized, well-positioned ears being ideal.

Chapter 12 The neck connects the face and trunk. The front part includes the larynx and windpipe, essential for respiration and speech, while the back part houses the esophagus. The shoulder-point, or epomis, is behind the neck. The trunk has a front and back: the chest, with breasts and nipples, lies in front, while the back includes the shoulder blades and backbone. The belly follows the chest, with the navel, flank, abdomen, hypochondrium, and pubic region. The pelvis supports the lower trunk, with the rump and socket facilitating movement. The womb and penis are specific to females and males, respectively.

Chapter 13 The trunk's front part includes the chest, breasts, and belly, with the navel as its root. The flank is bilateral, the abdomen is undivided below the navel, and the hypochondrium is above it. The pelvis serves as a girdle to the lower parts, named for its symmetrical appearance. The fundament's resting part is the rump, and the thigh's pivot is the socket. The womb is unique to females, while the penis is external in males, composed of the glans and frenum. The scrotum encloses the testicles. These parts are crucial for reproduction and excretion, differing between sexes.

Chapter 14 The female privy part is opposite to the male's, being hollow and receding. The urethra, outside the womb, serves for sperm passage in males and liquid excretion in both sexes. The neck and chest share the throat, the armpit connects the side, arm, and shoulder, and the groin links the thigh and abdomen. The inner thigh and buttocks form the perineum, while the outer part is the hypoglutis. The back part of the trunk is the back. These anatomical structures are essential for various functions, including reproduction, excretion, and movement, differing in structure and purpose between males and females.

Chapter 15 The back parts include shoulder blades, the backbone, and loins, with eight ribs on each side. Man has upper and lower, front and back, right and left parts, with symmetry in upper and lower parts. Limbs consist of arms and legs. Arms have the shoulder, upper-arm, elbow, forearm, and hand, which includes the palm and fingers. Legs have the thigh-bone, kneecap, and leg, ending in the ankle and foot. Toes are five, with nails and joints. The knee joins the thigh and shin. These parts enable movement, manipulation, and various physical activities, vital for daily functions and overall mobility.

Chapter 16 External parts are well-known, but internal parts are less understood. The brain is at the head's front in all blooded animals and molluscs. The human brain, largest and moistest, has two membranes and is bilateral. The cerebellum is at the back. The brain is bloodless, cold, and has a central hollow. Three ducts connect the eye to the brain. The windpipe, made of gristle, is in front of the oesophagus and extends to the lungs. The oesophagus, connected to the mouth, leads to the stomach. The human stomach resembles a dog’s, leading to a convoluted bowel.

Chapter 17 The heart, situated above the lung, has three cavities, connected to the great vein and aorta. The apex points forward, with the rounded end at the top. The heart lies slightly left in the chest, with the largest cavity on the right. Canals from the heart parallel the windpipe's passages in the lung. The lung, spongy and blood-rich, is connected to the heart and diaphragm. The liver and spleen lie below the diaphragm, attached to the stomach by the caul. The kidneys, near the backbone, have ducts leading to the bladder, which is connected to the urethra.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1-1 Parts of animals are simple or composite, varying in structure.

Chapter 1-2 Animals have organs for food intake and waste excretion.

Chapter 1-3 Reproductive organs vary; touch is common in all animals.

Chapter 1-4 Moisture is vital, with blood and touch in animals.

Chapter 1-5 Animals reproduce by live birth, laying eggs, or larvae.

Chapter 1-6 Genera of animals include birds, fishes, cetaceans, oysters, molluscs.

Chapter 1-7 Body's main parts: head, neck, trunk, arms, and legs.

Chapter 1-8 Face includes forehead, indicative of character traits.

Chapter 1-9 Eyebrows and eyes indicate disposition; some eyes lack color.

Chapter 1-10 Eye color varies; medium-sized eyes and receding eyes are best.

Chapter 1-11 Ears are for hearing, differ among animals; humans can't move.

Chapter 1-12 Neck connects face and trunk; includes windpipe and esophagus.

Chapter 1-13 Trunk parts: chest, breasts, belly, navel, pelvis, and pubes.

Chapter 1-14 Female privy parts differ from male; urethra serves both.

Chapter 1-15 Back parts include shoulder blades, backbone, and loins.

Chapter 1-16 Internal parts: brain in front, windpipe, oesophagus, stomach, bowel.

Chapter 1-17 Heart has three cavities; connected to veins, lungs, diaphragm, bladder.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 2-1 Animals have common and unique parts. For instance, viviparous quadrupeds have heads, necks, and parts of the head that differ in shape. Lions have a single-bone neck, while internally resembling dogs. Quadrupeds have forelegs instead of arms, some using them like hands. Elephants use their noses like hands, lifting food and objects. Man is unique in using both hands equally. Quadrupeds’ chests are narrow, unlike humans’. Birds and seals have different limb flexions. Birds’ legs bend backwards, forelimbs forwards. Animals sleep differently; for example, elephants bend legs to sleep. Flexion patterns vary across species.

Chapter 2-2 Dogs shed teeth like humans, but this often goes unnoticed as new teeth replace old ones quickly. This is likely true for wild beasts, shedding only canines. Young dogs have white, sharp teeth; old dogs' teeth are black and blunt. In horses, teeth whiten with age, unlike most animals. Males generally have more teeth than females. Man sheds teeth like dogs, retaining front teeth but never molars. The pig doesn't shed any teeth. Dogs' teeth help distinguish age: young dogs' teeth are white and sharp, old dogs' teeth are black and blunt.

Chapter 2-3 Horses' teeth whiten with age, unlike most animals, whose teeth blacken. Males generally have more teeth than females, observed in men, sheep, goats, and swine. Animals with more teeth tend to be long-lived. The "canines" come between sharp and blunt teeth, broad at the base and sharp at the tip. Some animals have tusks, like the boar, while others don't. Saw-toothed animals interlock their sharp-pointed teeth between the sharp-pointed ones in the other jaw, unlike horses and oxen, whose teeth have flat opposing crowns. No animal has both tusks and horns, or tusks and saw-teeth.

Chapter 2-4 Wisdom teeth appear around age twenty, in both sexes. Cases have been reported of people in their eighties growing wisdom teeth, causing significant pain. These cases occur in individuals who did not grow wisdom teeth earlier in life. The last teeth to emerge in humans are molars called "wisdom teeth." Elephants have four grinding teeth on each side and two tusks. Males' tusks are larger and curve upwards, while females' tusks are smaller and point downwards. Elephants are born with teeth, but their tusks are not visible at birth.

Chapter 2-5 Elephants have four teeth on each side for grinding food and two tusks. Males have larger, upward-curving tusks, while females have smaller, downward-pointing ones. Elephants are born with teeth, but tusks are not initially visible. The tongue of the elephant is exceedingly small and situated far back in the mouth, making it difficult to see. This anatomical detail differentiates the elephant from other animals. The tongue's size and position contribute to the elephant's unique feeding habits and vocalizations.

Chapter 2-6 The elephant's tongue is very small and located far back in the mouth, making it difficult to see. This anatomical detail distinguishes the elephant from other animals. The tongue's size and position contribute to the elephant's unique feeding habits and vocalizations. The relative size of an animal's mouth varies. Some animals, like dogs and lions, have wide mouths; others, like humans, have smaller mouths; and some, like pigs, have medium-sized mouths. These differences in mouth size and structure impact their feeding behavior and vocalizations.

Chapter 2-7 Animals have varying mouth sizes: wide (dog, lion), small (human), and medium (pig). The Egyptian hippopotamus, resembling a horse with a mane, is cloven-footed like an ox and has a snub nose. It has a huckle-bone, tusks, and a pig-like tail. It neighs like a horse, is as big as an ass, and has a hide thick enough for spears. Its internal organs resemble those of the horse and ass. This unique anatomy sets the hippopotamus apart from other animals, highlighting its distinct characteristics.

Chapter 2-8 Apes, monkeys, and baboons share traits of humans and quadrupeds. Monkeys have tails, apes do not. Baboons resemble dogs more and are larger, stronger, and more savage. Apes have human-like faces, nostrils, ears, teeth, and eyelashes. They have two chest teats, arm-like limbs, and fingers with nails. Their feet are like large hands, used for grasping, with a hard palm resembling a heel. Apes usually move on all fours due to their body proportions. They lack hips, and their tail is barely noticeable.

Chapter 2-9 Monkeys have tails and internal organs similar to humans. Their internal organs are found to correspond with those of humans during dissections. The tongue of the elephant is small and situated far back in the mouth, making it difficult to see. This anatomical detail differentiates the elephant from other animals. The tongue's size and position contribute to the elephant's unique feeding habits and vocalizations. So much for the properties of the organs of such animals as bring forth their young into the world alive.

Chapter 2-10 Oviparous blooded quadrupeds possess heads, necks, backs, and front and hind legs, like viviparous quadrupeds. They have tails, often large, and many-toed feet with separated toes. They have sensory organs, including a tongue, except the Egyptian crocodile, which has a fixed, prickly tongue like some fish. Oviparous quadrupeds lack ears and breasts and have internal testicles. They are covered with scales and are saw-toothed. River crocodiles have pig-like eyes, large teeth, strong nails, and tough scaly skin. They see poorly underwater but have acute vision above the surface, staying on land by day and in water at night.

Chapter 2-11 The chameleon resembles the lizard but has ribs meeting under the belly like fish. Its face resembles a baboon, and its long, coiled tail ends sharply. It stands higher than a lizard, with legs that bend similarly. Its feet have two parts, like a thumb and hand, with claws resembling birds of prey. The rough body, large eyes, and shifting vision are distinctive. Color changes occur when inflated with air. The chameleon is sluggish and hibernates like the lizard. It has minimal flesh, blood around certain organs, and strong, numerous membranes, continuing to breathe after being cut open.

Chapter 2-12 Birds share similarities with other animals, having heads, necks, backs, bellies, and chest analogs. Birds are unique with two feet, bending them backward like quadrupeds. They have wings instead of front feet, long haunch bones, and variously sized thighs and shins. Birds with crooked talons have large thighs and strong breasts. All birds have claws and toes, with high-flying birds having four toes. Birds lack lips, teeth, ears, and a nose but have beaks and sensory passages. They have two eyes without lashes, feathers instead of hair, tongues, and some have crests. Spurs are found in some birds, never with crooked talons.

Chapter 2-13 The genus of fishes includes diverse forms. Fishes have heads, backs, bellies with stomachs and viscera, and tails. They lack necks, limbs, testicles, and breasts. The dolphin, being viviparous, has two breasts with milk vents. Fishes have gills and fins, with most having four fins and lanky ones having two or none. Selachians have uncovered gills, while others have coverings. Gills vary in number and arrangement. Fishes lack hair, scales, or feathers, but some have rough or smooth skin. Most fishes are saw-toothed, with sharp teeth. Fishes have eyes without lids and lack ears and nostrils.

Chapter 2-14 The serpent genus includes land and aquatic species, with some sea-serpents resembling conger eels. Sea-scolopendras are smaller and found near rocks. They are redder and have more delicate legs than land scolopendras. The Echeneis, a small fish, is used as a charm but is inedible. Fishes differ in internal organs, with some having a simple stomach and others having caeca. Birds vary in having crops or wide esophagi. Most birds have thin, simple guts and low caeca. The external parts of blooded animals have been discussed, focusing on their number, properties, and diversities.

Chapter 2-15 Blooded animals include man, viviparous and oviparous quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and cetaceans. All viviparous quadrupeds have an oesophagus, windpipe, lung, heart, and diaphragm. Oxen may have a heart bone. Fish lack lungs and have gills. Blooded animals have a liver; most have a spleen. Some animals lack a gall-bladder, like deer, horses, mules, and some pigs. The dolphin lacks a gall-bladder. Birds and fishes have gall-bladders. Some fishes have gall-bladders near the liver, others near the gut. The spleen is small or absent in some animals, like the pigeon, kite, and owl. The liver and spleen vary in size and location.

Chapter 2-16 Viviparous quadrupeds have kidneys and a bladder. Oviparous quadrupeds, except turtles, lack these organs. All animals with these parts have them similarly located. The heart is usually central, except in humans, where it is slightly to the left. In fish, the heart points towards the head. Fish may have an oesophagus; others have a stomach connected directly to the mouth. Stomachs vary in structure: some have multiple chambers, while others, like pigs, have simple stomachs. Horned animals chew cud and have complex stomachs. Elephants have a constricted gut, resembling multiple stomachs. Ovipaquadrupeds have simple stomachs, like pigs or dogs.

Chapter 2-17 All animals with these organs have them similarly situated, with the heart generally in the middle, except in humans, where it is slightly left. The heart's pointed end turns frontwards. In fish, the pointed end faces the head and mouth. Some fish have an oesophagus, while others have a direct stomach-mouth connection. Stomachs vary in structure: horned animals have multiple chambers, while others, like pigs, have simpler stomachs. The gut's structure also varies. Some animals have gut-appendages or caeca. Birds' internal parts differ, with some having a crop and others a wide oesophagus. Birds have thin, simple guts and low caeca.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 2-1 Animals have common and unique parts. Man has distinctive characteristics, including hands.

Chapter 2-2 Dogs shed teeth like humans. Young dogs have white, sharp teeth.

Chapter 2-3 Horse teeth whiten with age. Males generally have more teeth than females.

Chapter 2-4 Wisdom teeth emerge around twenty. Sometimes appear in very old age.

Chapter 2-5 Elephants have four grinding teeth and two tusks, which differ in size and direction between sexes.

Chapter 2-6 Elephant's tongue is small and positioned far back in mouth.

Chapter 2-7 Animals differ in mouth size: large (dogs), small (humans), medium (pigs).

Chapter 2-8 Apes, monkeys, and baboons share human and quadruped traits.

Chapter 2-9 Monkeys have tails and internal organs similar to humans.

Chapter 2-10 Oviparous quadrupeds have heads, necks, backs, legs, and sensory organs.

Chapter 2-11 The chameleon resembles a lizard but has unique physical characteristics.

Chapter 2-12 Birds have heads, necks, backs, bellies, and unique wings.

Chapter 2-13 Fish have heads, backs, tails, no limbs, gills, or fins.

Chapter 2-14 Serpents include land and aquatic species with unique features.

Chapter 2-15 Blooded animals include man, quadrupeds, birds, fish, and cetaceans.

Chapter 2-16 Viviparous quadrupeds have kidneys, a bladder, and varied stomach structures.

Chapter 2-17 Animals have organs similarly situated, with heart positioning varying.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 3-1 Organs related to generation differ in males and females. Blooded males have various internal testicle placements, while birds and oviparous quadrupeds have internal testicles. Some males have external testicles, like dolphins. Females have diverse wombs, some with cotyledons in certain mammals. The structure varies greatly among species.

Chapter 3-2 Blood, veins, lymph, flesh, bone, skin, membrane, sinew, hair, nails, fat, suet, and excretions are homogeneous parts in sanguineous animals. Blood and veins are most primitive. Observing these in dead animals is difficult due to vein collapse. Living animals’ veins are internal and challenging to inspect.

Chapter 3-3 Polybus: Four vein pairs run from the head, ears, neck, loins, legs, and arms. Some anatomists misunderstood veins' origins due to difficulties in observation. Strangling emaciated animals helps investigation. Veins stem from the heart. Some theorists, like Syennesis and Diogenes, described vein routes differently. Living anatomy provides the best insights.

Chapter 3-4 From the heart, veins extend throughout the body. The aorta connects to the middle chamber. Branches from the aorta and main vein serve various organs, including liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, and reproductive organs. Observing veins in small or fat animals is difficult due to their size and fat content.

Chapter 3-5 Sinews originate from the heart, notably the aorta. They differ from veins by lacking continuity. Found around joints and flexures, sinews like the hamstring and tendon are crucial. Sinews are fissile lengthwise, sustain with mucus, and don't regenerate if cut. They are present in all blooded animals, adapted to their structure.

Chapter 3-6 Ines, or fibrous connective tissues, are intermediate between sinew and vein, carrying lymph fluid in some cases. They connect sinew to vein and vice versa. Another type of ines is found in blood, which allows coagulation. If this fibrous matter is absent, as in deer, roe, and antelope, the blood doesn't coagulate well. For example, deer blood coagulates like milk that hasn't been curdled by rennet. Such fibrous tissue is common in most animals but varies in presence and function. This distinguishes vein, sinew, and fibrous tissue in terms of structure and role in coagulation.

Chapter 3-7 Bones in animals are interconnected, starting from the spine or backbone, composed of vertebrae extending from head to loins. Vertebrae are perforated, with the skull attached to the top vertebrae. The skull varies: single bone in dogs, composite in humans, with males having three sutures and females a circular one. Jaw bones extend from the skull, containing teeth made of bone, half-perforated, and uncarvable. The spine connects to collarbones, ribs, shoulder-blades, arm bones, and in legged animals, thigh, shin, and foot bones. Variations in bone structure exist among species, with relative hardness and presence of marrow differing.

Chapter 3-8 Gristle resembles bone but differs in degree. Like bone, it doesn't grow back if cut. Terrestrial viviparous sanguinea have unperforated gristle without marrow, unlike selachians (cartilaginous fish) which have a marrow-like substance in their gristle. In viviparous animals with feet, gristle is found in the ears, nostrils, and around bone extremities. Gristle is an intermediate form between bone and other softer tissues, providing structure without the brittleness of bone. This structural difference explains the varying presence and function of gristle in different species, from mammals to cartilaginous fishes.

Chapter 3-9 Parts like nails, hooves, claws, and horns, along with bird beaks, are flexible and fissile but differ from bones, which are frangible. Colors of these parts match skin and hair colors. For example, black-skinned animals have black nails and horns. Teeth follow bone colors, being white in black-skinned animals like Aethiopians. Horns attach to the skin, not bone, and vary by species: stags shed horns annually unless castrated, while others retain them. Horned animals' nails vary: straight in some (e.g., humans), crooked in predators (e.g., lions), reflecting their evolutionary adaptations for survival.

Chapter 3-10 Viviparous animals have hair; oviparous ones have scales or tessellates. Fish with crumbling eggs have scales, while others like eels don't. Hair varies by body part, thickness, length, and skin type. Thick skin means thicker hair. Soft-haired animals get harder hair with better feeding; hard-haired animals soften. Climate affects hair quality: warmer places make hair harder. Hair texture varies: straight is soft, curly is bristly. Some animals' hair hardens into bristles or spines, as in hedgehogs. Man has the most delicate skin relative to size. Skin has mucous liquid, used for glue in ox hides.

Chapter 3-11 Hair and nails in animals differ in properties and responses to the environment. Hair is naturally fissile and hardens into bristles in some animals. In humans, hair varies with climate, becoming harder in warmer areas. Baldness occurs in men, not in boys, women, or castrated men. Hair changes color with age, turning grey, starting from the temples. Hair grows at the bottom after being cut, not at the top. Grey hair results from a lack of pigment, not age-related decay. Eyelashes are the last to grey. Hair grows in disease and old age, hardening like nails.

Chapter 3-12 Birds' plumage changes seasonally, sometimes due to climate, like unusual frost, but never from white to black. Some animals change color with water quality, like rams drinking from certain rivers. Hair grows in all mammals, not on internal surfaces or lower limbs. The hare uniquely has hair inside its mouth and under feet. Hairs grow from the root but don’t regrow if feathers or bee wings are plucked. Hair texture and density vary among species, influenced by factors like climate, disease, and aging. Hair growth patterns and colors reflect environmental and physiological conditions.

Chapter 3-13 Membranes, resembling thin, close-textured skin, are found in all sanguineous animals. They envelop bones and viscera but are often indiscernible in smaller animals due to their minuteness. The brain's largest membranes surround it, with one lining the skull and another enveloping the brain. Membranes don't regenerate if cut. They play a crucial role in protecting and enclosing vital organs, maintaining structural integrity. In small animals, their delicate nature makes them challenging to observe. Their presence across diverse species highlights their essential function in anatomical organization and protection.

Chapter 3-14 The omentum or caul is a membranous structure found in all sanguineous animals, sometimes containing fat. In ambidental vivipara, it attaches at the stomach's center; in non-ambidental vivipara, it attaches to the main ruminating stomach. This structure plays a role in fat storage and protection of abdominal organs. Its presence and attachment points vary among species, reflecting different anatomical and physiological adaptations. The omentum's fatty content can provide insulation and energy reserves, while its membranous nature allows flexibility and movement within the abdominal cavity.

Chapter 3-15 The bladder, an extensile membrane, is found in all viviparous animals, with the tortoise being the only oviparous animal possessing it. Bladders don't heal if cut unless at the urethra. They pass liquid and sometimes solid excretions, which can turn into stones. Unique to viviparous animals, the bladder stores urine and can expel both liquid and dry excretions, like stones in those with urinary conditions. Its structure allows flexibility and expansion. Instances of healing are rare. The bladder's function is essential for waste management, highlighting its importance in maintaining internal homeostasis.

Chapter 3-16 Flesh in sanguineous animals is between the skin and bone. It is divided in all directions, unlike sinew or vein. Emaciation causes flesh to disappear, leaving veins and fibers. Overfeeding replaces flesh with fat. Animals with abundant flesh have small veins and red blood. Conversely, those with large veins have black blood, large viscera, and scant flesh. Animals with small stomachs tend to have more flesh. This balance of flesh, fat, and blood is crucial for understanding the physiological differences among various species, highlighting their adaptation to different lifestyles and dietary habits.

Chapter 3-17 Fat and suet differ significantly. Suet is frangible and congeals in cold; fat melts but doesn't freeze. Soups from fatty meats don’t coagulate, unlike those from suet-rich meats. Fat is found between skin and flesh, suet at fleshy part limits. Animals with fat have fatty cauls, suet animals have suet-filled cauls. Fatty livers in some fish, like selachians, are used for oil. Fish suet remains fatty. Fat accumulates in the belly, especially in sedentary animals. Brain fat varies: oily in pigs, dry in suet animals. Fat predominantly gathers around kidneys, particularly in sheep.

Chapter 3-18 The area around the eye's pupil is fatty in all animals, resembling suet in those without hard eyes. Fat animals, male or female, are generally less suited for breeding. Animals tend to gain more fat as they age, especially when they reach their full size and begin to grow in depth. This phenomenon highlights how fat distribution and accumulation can impact an animal's reproductive capabilities and overall health, reflecting the interplay between age, physical condition, and biological functions in various species.

Chapter 3-19 Blood is essential in sanguineous animals, contained only in veins and the heart. It's not sensitive to touch, like brain and marrow. Healthy blood is sweet and red; diseased blood is black. Properly conditioned animals have balanced blood quantity. Blood, finest in humans, thickest in bulls, beats in veins and permeates the body, developing first in the heart. Excessive blood loss or dilution causes sickness or death. Sleep reduces blood supply near the surface. Blood's quality varies by age: abundant and ichor-like in young, thick and scarce in old. Diseased blood turns into pus or solidifies.

Chapter 3-20 Marrow, found in hollow bones, is a significant liquid in sanguineous animals. It's sanguineous in young animals, turning fatty or suet-like with age. Not all bones contain marrow; in lions, it's scarce, leading some to believe they lack it. Marrow's consistency and presence vary among species. This liquid, like blood, is crucial for animal physiology, providing essential nutrients and playing a role in skeletal health. Understanding marrow's properties offers insights into animal growth, aging, and species-specific adaptations related to bone structure and function.

Chapter 3-21 Rennet, a mix of milk and animal heat, is found in ruminants and hares, improving with age. Quality rennet helps with diarrhea. Milk yield varies by size and pasturage; Phasis cattle give abundant milk, Epirus cows yield nine gallons daily. Some pastures reduce milk, like lucerne; others increase it, like vetch. Milk remains longer if females avoid males. Good pasture enhances pregnancy and milk production. Ruminants have long lactation periods. Milk in women varies; swarthy women’s milk is healthier. Rich cheese milk is nutritious; low-cheese milk is better for children.

Chapter 3-22 All sanguineous animals produce sperm, vital for generation. Humans emit more relative to body size. In hairy-coated animals, sperm is sticky; in others, it's not. Sperm is always white, despite Herodotus' claim about Aethiopians. Healthy sperm exits white and consistent, becoming thin and black outside. Cold makes it watery; heat thickens it. Extended womb presence thickens sperm. Impregnating sperm sinks in water; non-fructifying sperm dissolves. Ctesias' claims about elephant sperm are false. Understanding sperm's properties helps in comprehending reproductive biology and debunking misconceptions about different species.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 3-1 Male and female reproductive organs differ in structure and placement.

Chapter 3-2 Blood, veins, lymph, flesh, bone, skin, membrane, sinew, excretions.

Chapter 3-3 Veins from heart, misunderstood by anatomists; best observed alive.

Chapter 3-4 Veins extend from heart, serve organs, difficult to observe.

Chapter 3-5 Sinews from heart, essential for movement, don't regenerate when cut.

Chapter 3-6 Ines are between sinew and vein; some carry lymph fluid.

Chapter 3-7 Bones connect in sequence; spine starts osseous system.

Chapter 3-8 Gristle resembles bone; found in ears, nose, extremities.

Chapter 3-9 Nails, hooves, claws, horns, beaks differ; flexible and fissile.

Chapter 3-10 Viviparous animals have hair; oviparous have scales, tessellates.

Chapter 3-11 Hair naturally fissile, differs by species; skin varies too.

Chapter 3-12 Winged animals rarely change color; climate influences color.

Chapter 3-13 Membranes are thin, cover bones and viscera, differ in strength.

Chapter 3-14 Omentum (caul) in sanguineous animals; attaches to stomach.

Chapter 3-15 Bladder is extensile membrane, present in vivipara, rare in ovipara.

Chapter 3-16 Flesh is between skin and bone, varying with diet and emaciation.

Chapter 3-17 Fat melts; suet congeals. Found in different body locations.

Chapter 3-18 Fat around eyes, affects breeding, increases with age.

Chapter 3-19 Blood in veins, essential, varies by health and age.

Chapter 3-20 Marrow in bones, changes with age, crucial for nutrients.

Chapter 3-21 Rennet aids digestion. Milk yield varies by size, diet.

Chapter 3-22 Sperm is white, essential for reproduction, varies by species.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 4-1 We treat animals without blood, divided into four genera: molluscs, malacostraca, ostracoderms, and insects. Molluscs have soft flesh outside, hard inside. Malacostraca have hard outer structures, soft inside, like crawfish and crabs. Ostracoderms have hard outer shells, soft inside, like snails and oysters. Insects have nicks on their bodies, with intermediate structure between bone and flesh. Molluscs have feet, head, mantle-sac, and fins. Differences exist among molluscs like the octopus, calamary, and sepia. Each has unique structures and behaviors, such as arms, suckers, and swimming methods.

Chapter 4-2 Malacostraca or crustaceans include crawfish, lobsters, carids, and crabs. Crawfish have five feet per side, including claws. Crabs have ten feet. Carids like prawns and shrimps have sharp-pointed feet. Crabs vary widely, some run quickly like the "horsemen." Lobsters have two large claws, right claw thin and long, left thick and round. Both claws have teeth. Crawfish have antennae, rough and smooth. Their eyes can move, similar to crabs. Lobsters have different feet types, bifurcate or undivided. All crustaceans have water intake near the mouth, discharged differently.

Chapter 4-3 Crabs have claws, feet, and a single undivided body trunk. Eyes may be side-placed or central. The mouth is under the eyes with two long teeth. Crabs intake water near the mouth and discharge it above. The stomach follows the oesophagus, leading to a simple gut. The male crab differs from the female by size and ventral flap. Female crabs have broader, hairier flaps for spawn deposition. Internal organs include sallow juice and white or red bodies. Differences between males and females, mainly in size and flap structure.

Chapter 4-4 Testaceans like snails, oysters, and sea urchins have fleshy parts inside, shells outside. They vary in shell smoothness, thickness, and mobility. Some, like scallops, can move, while others, like the pinna, are stationary. Internally, they share similar structures: head, horns, mouth, tongue-like organ, and mecon (excretion organ). The internal arrangement differs in size and visibility. Marine and terrestrial species show variations. The carcinium (hermit crab) resembles crustaceans and testaceans, living inside shells and exhibiting both characteristics. Hermit crabs have a unique anatomy with thin red horns and various legs.

Chapter 4-5 Sea urchins have no flesh, only black formations and eggs. Different species exist, such as edible urchins with large eggs, spatangus, and echinometrae. Sea urchins move using their spines. Their head and mouth are below, with the excretion point above. They have five teeth and a fleshy tongue. The stomach is divided into five parts, filled with excretion, leading to an anal vent. Eggs are in a separate membrane, always five in number. The black formations, attached to the teeth, are bitter and inedible. Similar formations are found in other animals like tortoises and molluscs.

Chapter 4-6 The tethyum or ascidian is a unique mollusc with its body entirely enclosed in a shell-like substance that is intermediate between hide and shell. It attaches to rocks by its shell and has two small passages for admitting and discharging seawater. Inside, it has a tendinous membrane and flesh-like substance attached obliquely. The ascidian lacks typical excretory organs found in other molluscs. Its color varies from sallow to red. Another interesting creature is the sea-nettle, which clings to rocks and captures prey with its fleshy body. Sea-nettles come in two types: edible and large, hard ones.

Chapter 4-7 Insects have three main body parts: the head, the trunk (containing the stomach), and a middle part, which can have multiple segments in long, multipedal insects. Insects, when cut in two, can still live, except those that are cold-blooded or small. Some insects can make noise or sound but do not have a true voice. They have organs for sensation, like eyes and tongues, but lack true viscera and fat. Insects include species like bees, wasps, flies, and beetles, all with distinct sensory and structural features, including wings and antennae.

Chapter 4-8 Animals have five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Most animals with feet and red blood possess all five senses. Some animals, like moles, have vestigial eyes and lack true sight. Fish, while lacking visible ears or nostrils, can hear and smell, reacting to noise and bait. Fish like dolphins exhibit behaviors indicating hearing and smell, despite lacking traditional sensory organs. Insects, molluscs, and crustaceans also have sensory abilities, with insects like bees detecting scents from afar. The ability to taste is inferred from their food preferences, and touch is common to all animals.

Chapter 4-9 Voice and sound are distinct; voice is produced through the pharynx, involving the lungs and vocal cords, while sound can be made without these. Language requires the articulation of vocal sounds using the tongue. Insects, lacking lungs, produce sounds through other means, such as wing movement or body friction. Molluscs and crustaceans do not have a natural voice but can emit sounds. Fish produce sounds by moving internal parts or gills. Birds and mammals produce vocal sounds, with birds capable of complex songs and mammals using voice for communication. Man uniquely uses language, combining vocal and consonantal sounds.

Chapter 4-10 All red-blooded, legged animals sleep and awaken, with many also dreaming, such as horses, dogs, and oxen. Fishes sleep briefly and can be caught while motionless. Evidence of fish sleep includes their stillness and vulnerability during rest. Molluscs and crustaceans also sleep. Insects, like bees, sleep, with observable rest periods, especially at night. Humans dream the most, with dreams starting typically around ages four or five. Dreaming in humans varies, and some adults never dream. Sleep is universal among animals, with variations in duration and observability.

Chapter 4-11 Sexual differentiation exists in many animals but not all. Molluscs and crustaceans exhibit male and female forms. Eels are neither male nor female and do not reproduce sexually. Some fish species, like the psetta and channe, always have eggs. Generally, in viviparous quadrupeds, males are larger and live longer, while in oviparous and vermiparous animals, females are larger. Females often have better-developed hind parts, while males have stronger front parts. Male animals are usually more muscular, with thicker hair and skin, while females are softer and more delicate. Some species show differences in defensive and offensive organs between sexes.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 4-1 Treats animals without blood: molluscs, malacostraca, ostracoderms, and insects.

Chapter 4-2 Malacostraca include crawfish, lobsters, carids, crabs, with various structures.

Chapter 4-3 Crabs: claws, feet, single undivided body trunk, water intake near mouth.

Chapter 4-4 Testaceans: snails, oysters, sea urchins, fleshy parts inside, shells outside.

Chapter 4-5 Sea urchins: no flesh, black formations, eggs, five teeth, stomach.

Chapter 4-6 The tethyum or ascidian has a shell resembling hard leather.

Chapter 4-7 Insects have head, trunk, and segmented middle part; different senses.

Chapter 4-8 Animals have five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch.

Chapter 4-9 Voice differs from sound; only vocal animals articulate language.

Chapter 4-10 All red-blooded animals sleep; some dream, like dogs.

Chapter 4-11 Some animals have sexes, others, like eels, do not.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 5-1 We have discussed animal parts, senses, voice, sleep, and sex. Now, we explore their various modes of propagation. These modes are diverse, and we will follow the same genus-based approach, beginning with testaceans, then crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and fishes. Some animals generate from parents, others spontaneously from elements. Some fishes are neither male nor female, and some are always female. Copulation occurs in animals with dual sex. Spontaneously generated animals may copulate and produce imperfect offspring. We will detail 'covering' in animals and their reproductive methods.

Chapter 5-2 Animals with dual sex copulate in various ways. Viviparous quadrupeds generally mount the female; birds squat or mount without squatting. Bears lie prone, and hedgehogs copulate erect. Large vivipara like deer and cattle often elicit sperm while withdrawing. Wolves copulate like dogs, while cats have a unique method. Camels copulate with the female sitting, taking all day in secluded spots. Elephants copulate near riversides with the female squatting. Seals copulate similarly to dogs, with prolonged duration. Different animals have specific mating behaviors, adapting to their physical structures and environments.

Chapter 5-3 Oviparous quadrupeds, such as tortoises, copulate similarly to viviparous ones. Males mount females, as seen in land and sea tortoises. These animals have organs for copulation, observed in toads, frogs, and similar species. Despite their differences in reproductive methods, they follow similar copulation patterns. This uniformity in mating behavior across various species highlights the consistency in reproductive strategies among oviparous quadrupeds.

Chapter 5-4 Long, legless animals like serpents and muraenae intertwine belly to belly during copulation. Serpents coil tightly, appearing as a single serpent with two heads. Saurians also coil around each other in a similar manner. This coiling behavior is a distinctive copulation method for these species, differing significantly from other animals. This unique method allows for successful reproduction despite their elongated, limbless bodies.

Chapter 5-5 Fishes generally copulate belly to belly, except flat selachians, which may mount from behind. Cartilaginous fishes and cetaceans also copulate side by side. Male cartilaginous fishes have appendages near their reproductive organs. These animals lack testicles but have sperm-filled ducts. In viviparous animals, a single duct serves for sperm and waste, while oviparous animals have separate internal passages. Oviparous fishes' copulation is less visible, leading to theories of sperm ingestion for fertilization. Spawning often involves males consuming eggs, continuing the species through surviving spawn. This complex reproduction process varies among species and regions.

Chapter 5-6 Molluscs, like octopus and cuttlefish, mate by interlacing tentacles and connecting suckers. Some believe the male has a penis-like organ in a tentacle, used for mating. Cuttlefish and calamaries swim closely intertwined, with tentacles and mouths connected. Females lay spawn by the 'blow-hole,' where some think copulation occurs. This unique mating behavior differs significantly from other animal groups, highlighting the diversity in reproductive strategies among molluscs. Their complex tentacle interactions facilitate successful reproduction in their aquatic environments.

Chapter 5-7 Crustaceans, like crawfish and lobsters, copulate similarly to opisthuretic quadrupeds, near the shore in early spring. Lobsters and carids mate likewise. Crabs copulate belly to belly, aligning their opercula. Females differ from males only in larger, more elevated opercula. During copulation, there is no protrusion of a member from one animal into the other. This method of mating ensures successful reproduction in various crustacean species, adapting to their aquatic environments and physical structures.

Chapter 5-8 Insects copulate end to end, with the smaller male mounting the larger female. The female's reproductive organ enters the male's body. Insects like flies and cantharis engage in prolonged copulation. Web-spinning spiders, or phalangia, pull each other towards the web until interlaced. Most animals mate in spring, but some also mate in autumn and winter. Domestic animals and humans mate year-round. Birds breed mainly in spring, with exceptions like the halcyon. Environmental factors and seasons influence mating behaviors and reproductive cycles across species, ensuring offspring's optimal survival and growth.

Chapter 5-9 Birds like the diver and gull lay eggs on coastal rocks, with gulls laying in summer and divers in early spring. The halcyon breeds during the winter solstice, creating calm "halcyon days." The nightingale breeds in early summer. Some insects, like flies and ants, breed in winter during fine weather. Most wild animals and fishes breed once a year, but some breed multiple times. Fish breeding varies, with some species like the red mullet breeding thrice yearly. Environmental factors and species-specific behaviors influence breeding cycles, ensuring successful reproduction across diverse animal groups.

Chapter 5-10 Cartilaginous fishes like the rhina breed twice a year, while some dog-fishes seem to breed monthly. Fishes like the muraena breed year-round, producing numerous eggs that grow rapidly. Species like the coracine and sea-perch also grow quickly. Pelamys and tunny breed in the Euxine, while mullet, gilt-head, and basse breed near river mouths. Rapid growth and varied breeding seasons ensure fish populations' survival. Environmental factors and reproductive strategies enable diverse fish species to thrive in different habitats, maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity.

Chapter 5-11 Fish mainly breed between mid-March and mid-June. Some species breed in autumn, such as the saupe, sargus, electric ray, and angel-fish. Others breed in both winter and summer. The female tunny spawns around the summer solstice, laying numerous small eggs. Grey mullets, like chelon, sargue, smyxon, and cephalus, start to develop roe between mid-November and mid-December, with a gestation period of thirty days. Some grey mullets spontaneously generate from mud and sand. Generally, fish breed in spring, but breeding in other seasons is less prolific and affected by locality, impacting size, vigor, and frequency of breeding.

Chapter 5-12 Marine molluscs breed in spring. Sepia spawn throughout the day, with a fifteen-day gestation. The male fertilizes the eggs post-laying, hardening them. Males and females travel in pairs, with males more mottled and darker. Octopuses pair in winter and breed in spring, hiding for about two months. Their spawn resembles vine-tendrils and is extraordinarily prolific. Males have a distinct white organ in one tentacle. The female broods over her eggs, neglecting food and becoming emaciated. The purple murex and ceryx also breed in spring, while testaceans have their eggs in spring and autumn, except the edible urchin.

Chapter 5-13 Wild birds typically breed once a year, but swallows and blackbirds breed twice. The blackbird's first brood often succumbs to weather, while the second usually survives. Domesticated birds, like common pigeons and barn-door hens, breed more frequently, year-round if conditions are right. Pigeons vary in species: the rock-pigeon is smaller and harder to domesticate, while the phatta (ring-dove) is the largest, followed by the oenas (stock-dove). The smallest is the turtle-dove. Pigeons breed best in spring and autumn. Spring and autumn broods are the most robust, while summer broods are the weakest.

Chapter 5-14 Animals reach sexual maturity at different ages. Males often start producing sperm before it becomes fertile. In humans, males start around fourteen and become fertile at twenty-one. Voice changes, genital growth, and hair at the pubes signal maturity. In animals, similar changes occur. The female is usually sharper-voiced, and young animals have higher-pitched sounds. Animals capable of sexual reproduction show physical and behavioral changes at maturity, such as voice deepening in males. Dogs and horses exhibit voice changes, indicating reproductive readiness. These traits help determine the best breeding age and conditions for various animals.

Chapter 5-15 Testaceans mostly reproduce without copulation. Purple murices gather in spring to deposit "honeycomb," a structure resembling chickpea husks, from which new testaceans grow from mud and decay. The process is similar for the ceryx. The murex lives about six years, marked by growth intervals in its shell. The bloom, used for dye, is extracted from between the liver-like organ and the neck. The murex and ceryx feed with a tongue-like organ. Other testaceans, like mussels and cockles, also grow from mud or sandy bottoms, some attaching permanently to rocks or remaining in specific areas.

Chapter 5-16 Sea-nettles and sponges grow spontaneously. There are two species of sea-nettles: one attaches to rocks, the other moves. Sponges have three species: porous, close-textured, and the rare "sponge of Achilles." Sponges grow in rocky or sandy areas, getting nutrients from slime. They are sensitive, contracting when touched or in rough weather. Sponges also breed parasites. They are black before cleaning, attaching not at one spot but over their bodies. The "aplysia" species is uncleanable, closer-textured, and black. Sponges regenerate from remaining stumps when damaged and thrive in deep, calm waters close to shore.

Chapter 5-17 Female crawfish, after copulation, retain eggs for three months, then lay them under their bellies, where they grow like grubs. This growth pattern is seen in molluscs and oviparous fishes. Crawfish eggs are granular, divided into eight parts, and attached to gristly formations resembling a cluster of grapes. The largest eggs are in the middle, the smallest at the ends. After hatching for twenty days, crawfish are expelled in a lump, forming small crawfish in fifteen days. Crawfish inhabit rocky areas, lobsters smooth places. In winter and spring, they stay near land; in summer, they move to deep water.

Chapter 5-18 Molluscs lay white spawn that becomes granular. Octopus lays eggs resembling vine tendrils, brooding them in holes. Eggs are numerous, forming small, spider-like young. Sepia lays grape-like clusters, turning black with male fluid. Eggs grow a hail-stone-like inner part. Young sepia develop from this, attached by a head. Young sepia first appear white, turning red when touched. Crustaceans brood eggs under their bodies; octopus and sepia stay put. Sepia lays near shore; fishermen use faggots to attract them. Calamary spawns at sea. Octopus and sepia are short-lived, with a single young from each egg.

Chapter 5-19 Insects copulate with males mounting females. Most insects produce grubs, except one butterfly species laying hard eggs. Grubs grow into fully-formed insects. Some insects are derived from similar parents, while others spontaneously generate from dew, mud, dung, timber, hair, flesh, or excrement. Intestinal worms do not propagate. Butterflies, bees, and wasps undergo metamorphosis, ceasing to eat or void excrement as pupae. Various insects transform from grubs or caterpillars. Generation is influenced by the sun's heat or wind. Snow, fire, and even copper-ore smelting can generate insects. Some insects, like ticks and gadflies, have specific generative conditions.

Chapter 5-20 Hunter-wasps kill spiders, placing them in mud cells for larvae. Small insects create similar cells on walls. Insect generation usually takes three to four weeks. Grubs take three weeks, oviparous insects four. Eggs form within seven days of copulation, hatching over the next three weeks. Insects transform in intervals of three to four days, similar to intermittent fever crises. Insects die from organ shriveling, with winged insects succumbing in autumn and myops dying from eye dropsy.

Chapter 5-21 Bees' reproduction theories vary: some say they fetch young from flowers like callyntrum, reed, or olive. Olive harvests link to bee swarms. Rulers of hives, red or black, are thought to generate bees. Drones, believed male, lack stingers; worker bees are female. Ordinary bees develop in comb cells, rulers below comb, separated, six or seven. Rulers have stings but don’t use them, causing belief they lack stings.

Chapter 5-22 Bee species vary: the best is round, mottled; another long, resembling anthrena. A third is black, flat-bellied, nicknamed 'robber'. The fourth, largest, is the stingless drone. Two types of ruler bees exist, necessary for hive stability. Springtime delay, drought, mildew reduce bee progeny. Dry weather boosts honey production; rainy boosts brood. Bees make honeycomb from flowers, wax from tree resin, honey from dew. Honey gathers best during constellation risings or rainbows.

Chapter 5-23 Anthrenae and wasps build combs for young. Without a king, anthrenae build high, wasps in holes. With a king, they build underground. Combs are hexagonal but made of filamented fiber, not wax. Eggs vary in development stage within cells. Young anthrenae have a drop of honey. Larvae appear in autumn, growing with full moon phases.

Chapter 5-24 Humble-bees build thick, cone-shaped clay nests against stones, smeared with spittle. Nests are hard to break. Eggs produce white grubs in black membranes. Nests contain wax, yellower than bee wax.

Chapter 5-25 Ants copulate, producing grubs. Grubs grow from small, rounded shapes to elongated ones, emerging in springtime.

Chapter 5-26 Land-scorpions lay egg-shaped grubs, brood over them. After hatching, young scorpions often kill and eject the parent, similar to spiders.

Chapter 5-27 Spiders copulate and generate small grubs, transforming into spiders. Eggs are laid in webs, brooded over, and hatch in three days. Young spiders leap and spin webs immediately. Grubs and young spiders have thick, white juice.

Chapter 5-28 Grasshoppers copulate with males covering females. Females lay eggs in ground, eggs turn to grubs, mature into black grasshoppers, shedding skin. Eggs laid in summer, hatch in spring.

Chapter 5-29 Locusts lay eggs, die post-laying. Heavy autumn rains destroy eggs, but droughts lead to numerous locusts.

Chapter 5-30 Cicadas have two kinds: small, early; large, singing. Large cicadas sing, mate belly-to-belly, lay eggs in fallow land, vines, or squill stalks. Grubs grow in ground, becoming nymphs, then cicadas at summer solstice. Only males sing, turning black and hard. Females become sweeter post-copulation due to white eggs. Cicadas feed on dew.

Chapter 5-31 Insects like lice, fleas, and bugs that live on the juices of living flesh generate nits, which do not produce more insects. Fleas are generated from dry excrement, bugs from the moisture of living animals, and lice from the flesh of animals. Lice appear as small eruptions without pus and can jump out if the spot is pricked. Lice can be a disease in moist conditions and have caused death. Lice infest various animals but not donkeys. Sea lice come from slime, and some parasites are specific to certain fish. All these insects are multipedal and bloodless.

Chapter 5-32 Animalcules are generated in wool, wax, and books. The ses or clothes-moth is found in wool, especially dusty wool. The acari or mite is the smallest and found in wax and wood. In books, some animalcules resemble grubs or tiny tailless scorpions. Grubs in wool become chrysalises and later winged insects. The 'faggot-bearer' grub has a tunic-like casing with twigs attached, which is integral to its body. The wild fig contains the psen or fig-wasp, which emerges as a winged insect. The psen helps fig trees by entering their fruit, preventing them from dropping.

Chapter 5-33 Quadrupeds that are red-blooded and oviparous reproduce in the spring, though copulation varies by species. The tortoise lays hard-shelled eggs, buries them, and broods on the ground, hatching them the next year. Freshwater tortoises lay eggs in holes, hatch them quickly, and lead young to water. Sea turtles lay many eggs, bury them, and brood at night. Lizards and crocodiles lay eggs on land. Lizards hatch spontaneously and live about six months. River crocodiles lay sixty eggs, brooding for sixty days, and grow significantly larger over their lifespan.

Chapter 5-34 Vipers are viviparous, previously oviparous internally, with uniform-colored, soft-skinned eggs. Young vipers are born in membranes that burst after three days or are eaten out by the young. Vipers give birth to twenty young in one day. Other serpents are oviparous, laying necklace-like eggs in the ground, brooding them, and hatching them the following year.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 5-1 We discussed animal parts, senses, voice, sleep, sex, propagation.

Chapter 5-2 Animals with dual sex copulate in various ways and positions.

Chapter 5-3 Oviparous quadrupeds, like tortoises, copulate similarly to viviparous ones.

Chapter 5-4 Long, legless animals like serpents intertwine belly to belly.

Chapter 5-5 Fishes copulate belly to belly, except flat selachians mounting behind.

Chapter 5-6 Molluscs mate by interlacing tentacles and connecting their suckers.

Chapter 5-7 Crustaceans copulate near shore in spring, aligning opercula.

Chapter 5-8 Insects copulate end-to-end, male mounting larger female.

Chapter 5-9 Birds and insects have varied breeding seasons, influenced by environment.

Chapter 5-10 Cartilaginous fishes and muraena breed multiple times yearly.

Chapter 5-11 Fish typically breed from mid-March to mid-June, with exceptions.

Chapter 5-12 Marine molluscs, like sepia and octopus, breed in spring.

Chapter 5-13 Wild birds usually breed once annually, domesticated birds more frequently.

Chapter 5-14 Animal generative capacity varies with age, species, and season.

Chapter 5-15 Testaceans, like purple murices, spontaneously generate from mud.

Chapter 5-16 Sea-nettles, sponges grow spontaneously; sponges have three species, sensitive.

Chapter 5-17 Female crawfish lay eggs in summer; eggs hatch into grubs.

Chapter 5-18 Molluscs lay white spawn; octopus, sepia eggs cluster, hatch.

Chapter 5-19 Insects copulate, produce grubs; butterflies lay hard eggs, transform.

Chapter 5-20 Hunter-wasps kill spiders, lay eggs in mud.

Chapter 5-21 Bees' reproduction theories: fetch young from flowers or rulers generate.

Chapter 5-22 Bee species: round, long, black, and stingless drone; rulers necessary.

Chapter 5-23 Anthrenae, wasps build combs; kings influence hive structure.

Chapter 5-24 Humble-bees build hard clay nests, lay eggs, produce grubs.

Chapter 5-25 Ants copulate, grubs grow from small to elongated shapes.

Chapter 5-26 Land-scorpions brood eggs; young often kill the parent.

Chapter 5-27 Spiders copulate, lay eggs, grubs transform into young spiders.

Chapter 5-28 Grasshoppers lay eggs in ground, mature into black grasshoppers.

Chapter 5-29 Locusts lay eggs, die after; drought increases their numbers.

Chapter 5-30 Cicadas lay eggs, grubs grow, males sing, females sweeter.

Chapter 5-31 Lice, fleas, and bugs produce nits, generated from animals or excrement.

Chapter 5-32 Animalcules in wool, wax, books; mites, faggot-bearer, fig-wasp found.

Chapter 5-33 Oviparous quadrupeds reproduce in spring; tortoises, lizards, crocodiles described.

Chapter 5-34 Vipers viviparous, serpents oviparous; viper births twenty young annually.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 6-1 All birds lay eggs, but pairing seasons and parturition times vary. Some, like barn-door hens and pigeons, lay throughout the year. High-breed hens lay fewer eggs than inferior ones. Some domesticated hens can lay twice a day. Pigeons lay ten times a year. Most birds lay in spring, some are prolific, laying often or many eggs at once. Birds of prey are generally unprolific. Birds usually lay eggs in nests, except some ground-nesting birds like partridges. Thrushes build clay nests in trees, while hoopoes lay in hollow trees without nests.

Chapter 6-2 Bird eggs have hard shells if laid by a healthy hen after copulation. Eggs have two colors: white outside and yellow inside. Waterbird eggs have more yolk than land birds. Egg colors vary: white, yellowish, mottled, or red. Eggs are asymmetrical; the blunt end comes out first. Long eggs are female; round ones are male. Eggs hatch through incubation or by being buried in dung. The sperm of birds is white. Wind-eggs, smaller and more liquid, can be laid without copulation and don't coagulate when incubated.

Chapter 6-3 Bird egg development is similar across species but varies in duration. In hen eggs, the embryo is visible after three days, with the heart appearing first. Veins and membranes develop around the yolk. By ten days, the chick's body parts are distinguishable, with prominent head and eyes. The yolk and white diminish as the chick grows. By twenty days, the chick moves and chirps inside the egg. The chick absorbs the yolk, and the navel-string detaches. Birds can lay unfruitful eggs. Twin eggs with two yolks may produce twin chicks.

Chapter 6-4 Birds like pigeons, ringdoves, and turtledoves typically lay two eggs per brood, rarely more. Pigeons lay year-round, while ringdoves and turtledoves lay only in spring. Most birds don't breed in their first year. Pigeons usually lay one male and one female egg. The male pigeon broods during the day, the female at night. Pigeon chicks hatch in twenty days. Pigeons can lay up to ten times a year, sometimes more in warmer climates. After hatching, both parents continue to care for the chicks. Ringdoves can live up to forty years.

Chapter 6-5 Vultures nest on inaccessible cliffs, making nests and young rarely seen. Some believed vultures came from unknown lands due to sudden appearances. However, vulture nests have been observed. Vultures lay two eggs. Carnivorous birds generally lay once a year, except swallows, which may nest twice. Swallow chicks can recover from eye injuries. Eagles lay three eggs, hatching two, and often raise one. Eagles may expel one chick from the nest due to feeding difficulties. Eagles brood for about thirty days. The treatment of young varies among eagle species.

Chapter 6-6 Eagles lay three eggs, usually hatching two, sometimes three. They often expel one chick due to feeding difficulties. Eagles may abstain from food during this period, becoming cross-tempered. The phene may care for the expelled chick. Eagles brood for about thirty days. Larger birds like geese and great bustards have similar hatching periods. Mid-sized birds like kites and hawks brood for about twenty days. Kites usually lay two eggs, sometimes three. Eagles, kites, and other birds of prey may expel and abandon weaker chicks. Crows take extended care of their young.

Chapter 6-7 The cuckoo is believed by some to be a transformed hawk, as hawks are rarely seen when cuckoos arrive. The cuckoo appears briefly in summer and disappears in winter. It resembles a hawk in color but not in physical features. The cuckoo lays its eggs in other birds' nests, sometimes after eating the host's eggs. It prefers ringdove nests. The cuckoo's young are often raised by the host bird. The cuckoo becomes fat and palatable during this time. Hawks also become palatable. Some hawks nest on cliffs and wilderness areas.

Chapter 6-8 Most birds alternate brooding duties between males and females. In geese, the female alone incubates continuously until hatching. Marsh-birds build nests in fenny, grassy areas, allowing the mother to feed while brooding. Crows also have the female brood alone, with the male providing food. Ringdoves' females brood from afternoon until the next morning, while males take over the rest of the time. Partridges build two-compartment nests, each parent brooding one side. After hatching, each parent rears their brood. Male partridges tread their young when taking them out of the nest.

Chapter 6-9 Peafowl live around twenty-five years, breeding in the third year and developing spangled plumage. They hatch eggs in about thirty days. Peahens lay once a year, about twelve eggs, in intervals. First-time layers lay around eight eggs. Peahens also lay wind-eggs. They pair in spring, lay immediately, and molt when early trees shed leaves, regaining plumage when foliage returns. Peafowl eggs are often incubated by barn-door hens due to peacocks' aggression. Males' testicles enlarge during breeding seasons, more noticeable in highly sexual birds like barn-door cocks and cock partridges.

Chapter 6-10 Cartilaginous fish are viviparous, unlike most oviparous fish. They have different womb shapes; oviparous fish have bifurcate wombs, while cartilaginous fish have wombs like birds. Fish eggs are uniformly colored, usually white. Development in fish eggs is similar to birds, with the upper part growing first. Embryos in cartilaginous fish develop with a long navel-string, which diminishes over time. They can extrude and take in their young, except the spiny dogfish. Flat cartilaginous fish like trygon and ray can't due to rough tails. Cartilaginous fish have simultaneous eggs and embryos.

Chapter 6-11 At breeding season, male sperm-ducts fill with sperm, bifurcate ducts. Cartilaginous fish are superfoetation, gestation is six months maximum. Angel-fish and skate can pair, starry dogfish bears frequently. Cartilaginous fish come near shore for warmth and protection.

Chapter 6-12 Cetacea, including dolphins and whales, are viviparous with lungs. Dolphins bear one or two offspring, porpoises are similar. Dolphins breathe, sleep, and snore above water. Dolphins and porpoises provide milk and suckle their young.

Chapter 6-13 Oviparous fishes have bifurcate wombs. Eggs result from copulation; sperm from males fertilizes them. Fish spawn near shores for warmth and protection. Some fish produce young without copulation.

Chapter 6-14 Marsh and river fish spawn in pools near reeds. Eggs are laid and fertilized by males. Some fish have continuous string-like spawn. Small fish can generate young quickly.

Chapter 6-15 Some fish originate from mud and sand, not eggs. Fish in Asia Minor rivers spontaneously appear. Some mullet species arise from mud and sand. Certain fish emerge from earthworms in muddy areas.

Chapter 6-16 Eels are neither oviparous nor viviparous. They originate from earthworms in mud. Eels appear after rain in drained ponds. Eels generate spontaneously from humid ground.

Chapter 6-17 Fish gestation periods vary, averaging thirty days. Shoal fish spawn in spring, others in summer. Fish are restless during gestation, often beaching themselves.

Chapter 6-18 Viviparous land animals exhibit cross-tempered behavior during breeding. Males of various species become aggressive during mating. Female animals show signs of menstruation. Breeding season varies among species.

Chapter 6-19 Ewes and goats conceive after multiple copulations. They bear one to four offspring, gestation is five months. Twin births depend on pasture quality. Male animals often display reproductive behaviors.

Chapter 6-20 Dogs breed at eight months old; pregnancy lasts sixty days. Bitches show signs of heat for fourteen days. Puppies are blind for twelve to seventeen days. Bitches bear up to twelve pups.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 6-1 Birds lay eggs; seasons vary, some lay year-round.

Chapter 6-2 Eggs have hard shells, white and yellow inside, various colors.

Chapter 6-3 Egg development similar across species; embryo visible in days.

Chapter 6-4 Pigeons lay year-round; usually one male, one female egg.

Chapter 6-5 Vultures nest on cliffs; carnivorous birds lay once yearly.

Chapter 6-6 Eagles lay three eggs, usually hatching two, sometimes three.

Chapter 6-7 Cuckoo resembles hawk; lays eggs in other birds' nests.

Chapter 6-8 Most birds alternate brooding; some species' females brood alone.

Chapter 6-9 Peafowl live twenty-five years; breed, lay eggs once yearly.

Chapter 6-10 Cartilaginous fish are viviparous; develop embryos with navel-strings.

Chapter 6-11 Breeding season: sperm-ducts fill; cartilaginous fish gestate six months.

Chapter 6-12 Cetacea: viviparous, lungs; dolphins bear one or two offspring.

Chapter 6-13 Oviparous fish: bifurcate wombs; eggs result from copulation, fertilized.

Chapter 6-14 Marsh, river fish spawn near reeds; males fertilize eggs.

Chapter 6-15 Some fish originate from mud and sand, not eggs.

Chapter 6-16 Eels: neither oviparous nor viviparous; originate from muddy earthworms.

Chapter 6-17 Fish gestation varies; shoal fish spawn in spring.

Chapter 6-18 Viviparous animals: cross-tempered during breeding; females menstruate.

Chapter 6-19 Ewes, goats conceive after multiple copulations; bear one to four.

Chapter 6-20 Dogs breed at eight months; pregnancy lasts sixty days.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 7-1 Human growth follows a specific pattern from conception to old age. Males begin producing seed and develop pubic hair around age fourteen, coinciding with voice changes. Females experience breast development and menstruation at this age. Early sexual activity can lead to structural changes and health issues. Both boys and girls may undergo changes in health, weight, and body shape after puberty. Hair growth varies based on body moisture levels, affecting breasts in girls and chest hair in men. Intemperate lifestyles and multiple childbirths can prematurely age individuals. Young women conceive easily but often experience difficult childbirth.

Chapter 7-2 Menstruation typically begins at the month's end, with cycles varying in duration and intensity. Women often feel unwell during menstruation, experiencing spasms, rumbling noises, and bodily discomfort. Conception usually occurs post-menstruation, with some women remaining childless without these symptoms. The catamenia can persist during pregnancy, affecting offspring health. Excessive sexual desire or abstinence can cause frequent menstruation. Human menstruation is more abundant than in other animals, with surplus material in non-viviparous animals converting into bodily substances. Men's seminal fluid is proportionately high, influencing their smooth skin. Diet affects secretion levels in both sexes.

Chapter 7-3 Signs of conception include dryness post-intercourse and rough lips. Smooth lips hinder conception, while rough, thin lips aid it. Conception can be managed by altering womb conditions. Menstrual discharge may continue briefly post-conception, but stops after the embryo forms. Milk appears in breasts, starting scanty and cobwebby. Male embryo movements start on the right around forty days, females on the left around ninety days. Embryos develop distinct parts, with male differentiation faster. Abortion within forty days results in embryo dissolution. Female embryos develop slower, often needing ten months to mature, with many exceptions in movement and development patterns.

Chapter 7-4 Post-conception, the womb closes for seven months, opening in the eighth for fertile embryos. Pregnant women often feel heaviness, headaches, and nausea, especially if burdened with superfluous humours. Some women suffer more at pregnancy's start or when the embryo grows, with male pregnancies generally easier. Women experience diverse cravings and mood swings, particularly with female fetuses. Hair changes are common, with natural hair thinning and unwanted hair growth. Male embryos move more and are born sooner; females are slower and laborious. Pregnancies vary, with terms from seven to eleven months. Pre-seven-month births are non-viable; seven-month babies are weak.

Chapter 7-5 Excessive salt intake during pregnancy can result in nail-less babies. Milk becomes usable when the child can survive, with initial milk being saltish. Wine affects pregnant women, causing relaxation. Childbearing begins and ends with menstruation in women and seed emission in men, starting in puberty. Menstrual discharge usually ceases around age forty, but can extend to fifty, with rare childbirths at that age. Beyond fifty, no childbirths occur. Men produce seed around age fourteen, similar to menstruation onset in women, but fertility declines with age as emissions weaken. Fertility peaks and declines parallel reproductive system maturation and cessation.

Chapter 7-6 Men remain sexually competent until sixty, sometimes seventy. Fertility varies; couples may be infertile with each other but fertile with others. Gender of offspring can also change with age. Some conceive easily but miscarry, others struggle to conceive. Physical traits and conditions can pass through generations. Children may resemble parents or ancestors, sometimes skipping generations. Twins usually resemble each other, but exceptions exist. Offspring may favor one parent’s traits more. A woman can conceive soon after giving birth, producing offspring that appear as twins.

Chapter 7-7 Sperm emission involves an air discharge. A membrane forms around the seed in the womb. All animals develop similarly, with the navel connecting to the womb or egg. The embryo develops inside a membrane, followed by another fluid-filled one. This fluid, often watery or sanguineous, is termed 'forewaters' by women. Development starts within the innermost envelope and expands outward, following similar principles across various species, whether flying, swimming, or walking on land, and regardless of whether they give birth to live young or lay eggs.

Chapter 7-8 All animals grow via the navel, connecting to the cotyledon or womb. Four-legged animals lie stretched, footless ones lie sideways, two-legged ones, like birds, bend, while human embryos curl with their nose between knees. Initially, embryos have heads up, later turning downward for head-first birth, though abnormalities occur. Near-term quadrupeds have solid and liquid excrement. Cotyledons shrink as embryos grow, disappearing eventually. Navel-string, a sheath around blood vessels, connects to cotyledons or womb, diminishing as the embryo matures. Veins within the navel-string connect to liver and aorta. The embryo moves and rolls in the womb before birth.

Chapter 7-9 Labor pains in women vary, often targeting thighs. Severe belly pain indicates quick delivery; loin pain suggests difficulty. Preliminary labor fluids differ by the child’s sex. Other animals’ parturition is less painful than humans’. Sedentary women, weak-chested, or short of breath have harder labor. During birth, the embryo moves, membranes burst, watery flood emerges, followed by the embryo and afterbirth. Proper navel-string cutting by skilled nurses is crucial, as mishandling can be fatal. Sometimes, reviving a seemingly stillborn child involves squeezing blood back from the umbilical cord. Natural head-first birth is typical, hands by sides, with initial cries and movements.

Chapter 7-10 Cutting the navel-string demands skill. If the afterbirth is out, the navel is tied and cut above the ligature; otherwise, it’s cut inside. Skilled midwives can revive apparently stillborn babies by squeezing blood back into the body. Typically, births are head-first, with hands by the sides. The child cries and moves its hands to its mouth immediately. The child voids excrement, initially resembling dark blood, later becoming milky. It neither laughs nor cries during waking hours until forty days old, mainly sleeping. Children begin cutting teeth in the seventh month, first the front ones, either upper or lower.

Chapter 7-11 Postpartum milk flows abundantly, sometimes from nipples, breasts, armpits. Indurated breast parts ("knots") occur if moisture isn't concocted. Swallowing hair causes breast pain ("trichia"). Milk persists until next conception, stopping menstrual purgations generally. However, discharge can occur during suckling. Moisture rarely moves simultaneously in multiple directions. Menstrual purgations are scanty with hemorrhoids, or varices causing pelvic fluid discharge. Vomiting blood during menses suppression doesn't worsen condition. Generally, breast issues arise from sponginess and moisture accumulation.

Chapter 7-12 Infants often suffer convulsions, especially with rich milk. Wine, particularly red and undiluted, exacerbates this. Flatulency-inducing foods and constipation are harmful. Most infant deaths occur within a week. Naming at this age is traditional. Convulsions worsen at the full moon. Spasms starting in the back are dangerous.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 7-1 Human growth: puberty starts around age fourteen; puberty changes noted.

Chapter 7-2 Menstruation starts end of month; often correlates with moon phases.

Chapter 7-3 Signs of conception: dryness, rough lips, and swelling flanks.

Chapter 7-4 Womb usually closes post-conception; embryo descends in eighth month.

Chapter 7-5 Excessive salt consumption leads to nail-less babies; early milk unusable.

Chapter 7-6 Men sexually active until sixty or seventy; fertility varies significantly.

Chapter 7-7 Sperm emission involves air discharge; embryo develops inside membranes.

Chapter 7-8 Animals grow via navel, embryos initially head up, develop similarly.

Chapter 7-9 Labor pains vary; severe belly pain means quicker delivery.

Chapter 7-10 Cutting navel-string requires skill; reviving stillborns involves squeezing blood.

Chapter 7-11 Milk flows abundantly postpartum, stopping menstrual purgations, sometimes causing pain.

Chapter 7-12 Infants suffer convulsions, worsened by wine, flatulency, constipation, moon phases.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 8-1 Animal characteristics and generation methods discussed. Habits and living modes vary. Psychical qualities evident in many animals, more distinct in humans. Traits like gentleness, fierceness, courage, timidity, and intelligence observed. Animals and plants show a continuum of life. Intermediate forms blur lines between lifeless and animal life. Sensibility varies among animals. Animal life divided into procreation and feeding. Their food depends on their constitution. Animals pursue pleasure aligned with their nature.

Chapter 8-2 Animals live on land or water, differing in respiration, habitat, and diet. Some inhale air, others water. Amphibious creatures live in both elements. Dolphins and cetaceans inhale air, exhale water. They suffocate in nets without air. Dolphins sleep with noses above water. Terrestrial and aquatic categories overlap in some animals. Aquatic creatures use water for respiration or food. Only cordylus lives on land, breathes water. Intermediate organs affect terrestrial or aquatic nature. Animals categorized by respiration, temperature, and diet.

Chapter 8-3 Birds with crooked talons are carnivorous, can’t eat grains. Examples: eagle, kite, hawks, buzzard, vulture, night-raven, owls. Other birds eat grubs or fruit. Examples: chaffinch, sparrow, titmouse, linnet, finch, rook. Water birds, some web-footed, live on or near water, eating plants or fish. Omnivorous birds: crow, seagull. Birds of prey avoid eating their own kind. Most birds drink sparingly; birds of prey rarely drink.

Chapter 8-4 Tessellated animals, like lizards and serpents, are omnivorous. Serpents love wine, drink sparingly. They extract prey's juices, expel remains whole. Spiders and serpents can survive long without food.

Chapter 8-5 Viviparous, jag-toothed animals are carnivorous. The wolf might eat earth when starving. Bears are omnivorous, eating fruit, vegetables, honey, and ants. They attack deer, boar, bull. The lion is carnivorous, eats greedily, drinks little. Lions expel solid waste irregularly, emit strong odors. The bear gulps drink; other animals drink differently.

Chapter 8-6 Animals with jagged teeth, like dogs, drink by lapping. Smooth-toothed animals, like horses, suck water. Pigs eat various foods, fatten easily. Fattening involves feeding barley, figs, acorns. Weighing live pigs estimates post-slaughter weight. Pigs resist wolves, fatten faster when allowed mud wallowing.

Chapter 8-7 Cattle eat grass and grain, fatten on flatulent food like beans. Hot wax molds young cattle's horns. Unbred Pyrrhic cattle grow larger, Epirus royal family keeps them. Cattle less prone to hoof disease with wax treatment. Healthy cattle drink clear water, suffer more in frosty weather.

Chapter 8-8 Horses, mules, asses eat corn, grass, fatten by drink. Water quality affects food enjoyment. Horses prefer clear water; camels prefer muddy. Camels can go four days without water. Ripening green corn gives smooth coat but may harm.

Chapter 8-9 Elephants consume up to nine medimni of fodder, ideally six or seven. Drink up to fourteen metretae of water. Camels live around thirty years, sometimes up to a hundred. Elephants can live up to three hundred years.

Chapter 8-10 Sheep and goats eat grass; sheep drink, eat steadily. Salt improves sheep health and fattening. They fatten on olive twigs, vetch, salted bran. Sheep lose weight from excessive movement or hardship. Weak sheep lack hoar-frost cover. Quadrupeds' flesh deteriorates in marshes, improves on high ground.

Chapter 8-11 Insects with teeth are omnivorous, while those with tongues feed only on liquids, extracting juices from various sources. Some insects, like the common fly, are omnivorous, while others, such as gadflies and horse-flies, are blood-suckers. Some feed on the juices of fruits and plants. Bees are unique in avoiding anything rotten and prefer sweet-tasting juices. They particularly enjoy clear, spring water. Thus, insects exhibit diverse dietary habits based on their anatomical features, with some being more selective in their food choices than others, reflecting their adaptation to different ecological niches.

Chapter 8-12 Animals' habits relate to breeding, rearing, and food procurement, adapting to temperature changes and seasons. Animals instinctively sense temperature shifts, seeking shelter accordingly. Some migrate to avoid cold winters or hot summers, while others stay and adapt. Birds like cranes migrate long distances, while fish move between shallow and deep waters. Weak animals migrate earlier due to temperature sensitivity. Migration patterns also affect animals' breeding readiness. These adaptations ensure survival and reproduction by optimizing living conditions and food availability, demonstrating animals' remarkable ability to respond to environmental changes.

Chapter 8-13 Fish migrate between outer seas and shorelines to avoid extreme temperatures and find better feeding grounds. Shallow-water fish, like the synodon and mullet, have firmer flesh due to more abundant food and stable temperatures. Deep-sea fish, like the trygon and white conger, have flaccid, watery flesh. Fish also migrate for spawning, with some, like the coly-mackerel, favoring the Propontis. Fish in sea-estuaries, such as the saupe and gilthead, benefit from freshwater influxes. Migration patterns, driven by temperature and food availability, ensure fish survival and reproductive success, reflecting their adaptability to environmental changes.

Chapter 8-14 Many insects hide during winter, except those in human dwellings or with short lifespans. Bees also hide, evident from their lack of food consumption and transparent bodies during this period. Hibernation provides protection against harsh conditions, ensuring survival. Animals, including insects, seek warm places for their winter or summer sleep. This behavior demonstrates their instinctual adaptation to seasonal changes, allowing them to conserve energy and maintain life through adverse conditions. The phenomenon of hiding or hibernation varies among species, reflecting their diverse strategies for coping with environmental stressors.

Chapter 8-15 Many tessellated animals, like serpents, lizards, and geckos, hibernate in winter for about four months, eating nothing during this period. Serpents burrow underground, while vipers hide under stones. Several fish, such as the hippurus and coracinus, also hibernate, particularly in winter. Fish like the tunny hibernate in deep waters, gaining significant weight post-hibernation. During severe weather, some crustaceans and fish hide. Fish exhibit a variety of hibernation behaviors, reflecting their adaptation to seasonal changes. This hibernation ensures survival during periods of food scarcity or extreme temperatures.

Chapter 8-16 Not all birds migrate; some, like swallows and kites, hide instead. Swallows are found featherless in holes, and kites emerge from hiding places. Birds with crooked or straight talons, such as storks, owzels, turtle-doves, and larks, also hide. The turtle-dove is notably absent in winter, hiding plump and moulting. Some cushats migrate like swallows, while others hide. Thrushes and starlings hide, and kites and owls hide briefly. These behaviors illustrate various survival strategies, ensuring birds endure harsh conditions by migrating or seeking shelter, depending on their species-specific needs.

Chapter 8-17 Bears and porcupines hibernate, with bears entering a fat, inactive state for at least forty days. Female bears give birth during hibernation and emerge in spring. They eat nothing during this period, evidenced by empty stomachs and intestines when caught. Dormice also hibernate, becoming very fat. Some animals shed an outer layer, called 'old-age,' during hibernation. Tessellates like geckos, lizards, and snakes also hibernate, shedding their skin in spring and autumn. Snakes' skin sloughs off from head to tail over a day and night, resembling the embryo's emergence from its afterbirth.

Chapter 8-18 Animals don't all thrive in the same seasons or weather. Birds do well in droughts and during parturition, especially the cushat. Most fishes thrive in rainy seasons, while birds and some fishes suffer. Birds of prey rarely drink, unlike other birds that drink sparingly. Birds' sickness is indicated by ruffled plumage. Different animals have varying health conditions based on the weather, showing their diverse adaptations. This variability in thriving conditions reflects the diverse ecological niches and physiological needs of different animal species, highlighting their complex relationships with their environments.

Chapter 8-19 Fish thrive in rainy seasons due to abundant food and favorable conditions. Freshwater influx and vegetation growth benefit most fish, except for the mullet and cephalus, which suffer from blindness in heavy rain. Cold winters harm fish with head stones, like chromis and basse. Certain fish, like the coracine, prefer droughts. Some fish thrive in specific habitats, like weedy areas, providing ample food. Fish condition varies with wind direction; long fish prefer north winds. Some fish suffer from parasites, like the tunny and swordfish. Fish thrive at sunrise and sunset, reflecting their environmental adaptations.

Chapter 8-20 River and lake fish, like the sheat-fish, are vulnerable to sunstroke and paralysis from thunder. Carp face similar risks. Sheatfish in shallow waters are preyed on by the dragon serpent. Balerus and tilon fish suffer from worms causing sickness and death during the Dog-star rising. Chalcis fish are plagued by lice under their gills. Mullein in water kills fish, used in fishing practices. Shellfish thrive in rainy weather but suffer during droughts, with fresh water being fatal to purple murex. Freshwater increases shellfish size and quality, vital for their survival and growth.

Chapter 8-21 Pigs suffer from diseases like branchos, causing swelling and rapid death if untreated. Branchos can affect various body parts, with excision as the primary treatment. Pigs also face two forms of craurus: one with head pain, treatable with wine, and another with incurable diarrhea. Overfeeding and heat increase susceptibility. Measles, indicated by pimples, affect flabby pigs. Measles-free pigs are healthier. Chickpeas and figs are best for rearing and fattening pigs. Salt in their diet boosts health and milk production in ewes. Shepherds use various strategies to optimize sheep health and productivity.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 8-1 Animal characteristics, habits, and psychical traits vary across species.

Chapter 8-2 Animals live on land or water, defined by respiration.

Chapter 8-3 Birds with crooked talons are carnivorous, others eat insects.

Chapter 8-4 Tessellated animals, like lizards, are omnivorous and drink sparingly.

Chapter 8-5 Jag-toothed animals are carnivorous; bears are omnivorous.

Chapter 8-6 Animals drink by lapping or sucking; pigs fatten easily.

Chapter 8-7 Cattle eat grass and grain, fatten on flatulent food.

Chapter 8-8 Horses, mules, asses eat corn and grass, fatten by drink.

Chapter 8-9 Elephants consume much fodder, drink lots of water.

Chapter 8-10 Sheep and goats eat grass; salt improves sheep health.

Chapter 8-11 Insects with teeth are omnivorous; those with tongues extract juices.

Chapter 8-12 Animal habits vary with breeding, rearing, and seasonal food changes.

Chapter 8-13 Fish migrate for food, breeding, and to avoid temperature extremes.

Chapter 8-14 Most insects hide in winter; bees go into hiding temporarily.

Chapter 8-15 Tessellates, like lizards and snakes, hibernate; some slough skin.

Chapter 8-16 Many birds hibernate instead of migrating; swallows found featherless.

Chapter 8-17 Bears and porcupines hibernate; bears don't eat during hiding.

Chapter 8-18 Birds thrive in droughts; fishes thrive in rainy seasons.

Chapter 8-19 Fish prefer rainy seasons; cold impacts some fish species.

Chapter 8-20 River fish avoid diseases but suffer sunstroke, parasites.

Chapter 8-21 Pigs suffer from diseases like branchos, craurus, and measles.

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Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 9-1 Long-lived animals show distinct passions and characteristics.

Chapter 9-2 Fish in shoals are friendly; solitary ones are enemies.

Chapter 9-3 Sheep are foolish, needing guidance in storms.

Chapter 9-4 Cattle stay in herds; mares adopt orphaned colts.

Chapter 9-5 Hinds birth near roads for safety; stags shed antlers in seclusion.

Chapter 9-6 Bears and wild goats use clever tactics for survival.

Chapter 9-7 Swallows, pigeons, and ring-doves show complex nesting behaviors.

Chapter 9-8 Quails and partridges build ground nests, feign injury to protect young.

Chapter 9-9 Woodpeckers feed on tree insects, show unique intelligence.

Chapter 9-10 Cranes and pelicans show intelligence and organizational skills.

Chapter 9-11 Wild birds build nests for offspring security.

Chapter 9-12 Wagtails are mischievous but easily domesticated.

Chapter 9-13 Jays store acorns, storks and bee-eaters show unique feeding behaviors.

Chapter 9-14 Halcyons build nests resembling sea balls, feed on fish.

Chapter 9-15 Hoopoes and titmice build nests using diverse materials.

Chapter 9-16 Reed-warblers and chatterers show adaptability to different environments.

Chapter 9-17 Crakes and tree-creepers display unique survival strategies.

Chapter 9-18 Herons and poynx show varied behaviors and adaptations.

Chapter 9-19 Owsels show species diversity and unique adaptations.

Chapter 9-20 Thrushes exhibit varied feeding habits and sizes.

Chapter 9-21 Blue-birds in Nisyros show unique climbing abilities.

Chapter 9-22 Oriole and soft-head show unique migration patterns and adaptations.

Chapter 9-23 Pardalus and fieldfare show unique survival strategies.

Chapter 9-24 Daws show species diversity and unique adaptations.

Chapter 9-25 Larks show species diversity and unique adaptations.

Chapter 9-26 Woodcocks and starlings exhibit unique behaviors and adaptations.

Chapter 9-27 Egyptian ibis shows species diversity and unique adaptations.

Chapter 9-28 Little horned owls show seasonal behaviors and adaptations.

Chapter 9-29 Cuckoo exhibits parasitic nesting behavior.

Chapter 9-30 Cypselus and goat-sucker show unique nesting and feeding behaviors.

Chapter 9-31 Ravens show unique parenting and social behaviors.

Chapter 9-32 Various eagle species show unique hunting and nesting behaviors.

Chapter 9-33 Large birds in Scythia protect eggs with animal skins.

Chapter 9-34 Owls and night-ravens hunt at night and eat small animals.

Chapter 9-35 Cepphus birds caught using sea-foam.

Chapter 9-36 Hawks have specific prey-catching methods; wolves aid fishermen.

Chapter 9-37 Marine creatures like fishing-frog and torpedo exhibit clever hunting strategies.

Chapter 9-38 Industrious insects like ants and bees display remarkable teamwork.

Chapter 9-39 Venomous phalangia and other spiders show unique web-building techniques.

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Animal Behavior and Characteristics

Chapter 9-1 Animals show distinct passions: cunning, courage, and different temperaments.

Chapter 9-2 Fish in shoals are friendly; solitary fish are enemies.

Chapter 9-3 Sheep are foolish; goats huddle for warmth and protection.

Chapter 9-4 Cattle follow strays; mares adopt orphaned colts, showing maternal instincts.

Chapter 9-5 Hinds birth near roads, lead young to safe lairs.

Chapter 9-6 Bears protect cubs while fleeing and seek herbs when injured.

Chapter 9-7 Birds show intelligence; swallows build nests, pigeons exhibit fidelity.

Chapter 9-8 Heavy birds like quails, partridges build ground nests for protection.

Chapter 9-9 Woodpeckers eat tree insects, build nests, show climbing abilities.

Chapter 9-10 Cranes exhibit high intelligence, have leaders, patrols, organized sleeping patterns.

Chapter 9-11 Birds' nests vary for offspring security; hawks avoid eating prey hearts.

Chapter 9-12 Wagtails, swans, and catarrhactes adapt to environments, show unique behaviors.

Chapter 9-13 Storks' offspring feed parents; bee-eaters, greenfinches build distinctive nests.

Chapter 9-14 Halcyon's nest resembles sea balls, eats fish, lays eggs.

Chapter 9-15 Hoopoes nest in excrement, change appearance seasonally, lay many eggs.

Chapter 9-16 Reed-warblers thrive in marshes, chatterers have beautiful plumage, pleasant notes.

Chapter 9-17 Crakes, sitta, aegolius-owls are resourceful, quarrelsome, thrive in unique habitats.

Chapter 9-18 Herons show varied habits; poynx attacks eyes, fights harpies.

Chapter 9-19 Owsels: black found everywhere, white only in Arcadia.

Chapter 9-20 Three thrush species: misselthrush, song-thrush, and smaller illas.

Chapter 9-21 Blue-bird common in Nisyros, steel-blue, long claws for climbing.

Chapter 9-22 Oriole yellow, migratory; soft-head settles on same branch, easily caught.

Chapter 9-23 Pardalus, collyrion, town birds like ravens, visible year-round.

Chapter 9-24 Three daws: chough, 'wolf', and small 'railer', plus web-footed variety.

Chapter 9-25 Two lark types: crested ground-dweller, smaller gregarious, both edible.

Chapter 9-26 Woodcock caught in gardens, runs quickly, easily domesticated.

Chapter 9-27 Egyptian ibis: white common, black only in Pelusium.

Chapter 9-28 Two horned owl species: year-round and autumn visitor, differing notes.

Chapter 9-29 Cuckoo lays eggs in other birds' nests, avoids raising young.

Chapter 9-30 Cypselus nests in long cells, goat-suckers milk goats, dim-sighted.

Chapter 9-31 Ravens pair, eject young, and communicate during significant events.

Chapter 9-32 Various eagle species hunt, nest on cliffs, and live long.

Chapter 9-33 Large Scythian bird guards hidden eggs from intruders.

Chapter 9-34 Owls hunt at night; phene aids eagle chicks.

Chapter 9-35 Cepphus caught with sea-foam, has good-smelling flesh.

Chapter 9-36 Different hawk species have specific prey-catching methods.

Chapter 9-37 Fishing-frog and torpedo use clever hunting strategies.

Chapter 9-38 Ants and bees are industrious, work even on moonlit nights.

Chapter 9-39 Venomous spiders use unique web-building techniques for hunting.

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