1 Yr 469 283 BC: The Senonian Gauls having slain Roman ambassadors, war is declared against them: they cut off L. Caecilius, praetor, with legions under his command, 26W 0 0

2 Yr 470 282 BC: The Roman fleet plundered by Tarentines, & commander slain: ambassadors, sent to complain of this outrage, are ill-treated & sent back; whereupon war is declared against them. Samnites revolt; against whom, together with Lucanians, Bruttians, & Etruscans, several unsuccessful battles are fought by different generals. 48W 0 0

3 Yr 471 281 BC: Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, comes into Italy, to succour Tarentines. Campanian legion, sent, under command of Decius Jubellius, to garrison Rhegium, murder inhabitants, & seize city. 29W 0 0

13 471 - 3 (280 - 78) 2
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1 472 280 Valerius Laevinus, consul, loses battle to Pyrrhus, who advances towards Rome, ravaging land. C. Fabricius negotiates prisoner release without ransom. Pyrrhus' ambassador demands king's entry into Rome, but Appius Claudius persuades senate to refuse. Census counts 278,222 citizens. 2nd battle with Pyrrhus is indecisive. 48W 0 0

2 473 279 The treaty with Carthaginians renewed 4th time. An offer made to Fabricius, consul, by traitor, to poison Pyrrhus. 21W 0 0

3 474 278 he sends him to king, & discovers to him treasonable offer. Successful operations against Etruscans, Lucanians, Bruttians, & Samnites. 22W 0 0

14 475 - 80 (278 - 73) 5
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1 75 277 Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily. 4 Many prodigies, among which, statue of Jupiter in Capitol is struck by lightning, & thrown down. 24W 0 0

2 476 276 The head of it afterwards found by priests. Curius Dentatus, holding levy, puts up to sale goods of person who refuses to answer to his name when called upon. 32W 0 0

3 477 275 Pyrrhus, after his return from Sicily, is defeated, & compelled to quit Italy. censors hold lustrum, & find number of citizens to be 2 hundred & seventy-one thousand 2 hundred & twenty-four. 35W 0 0

4 479 274 A treaty of alliance formed with Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Sextilia, vestal, found guilty of incest, & buried alive. 2 colonies sent forth, to Posidonium & Cossa. 30W 0 0

5 480 273 A Carthaginian fleet sails, in aid of Tarentines, by which act treaty is violated. Successful operations against Lucanians, Samnites, & Bruttians. Death of king Pyrrhus. 28W 0 0

15 481 27
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1 The Tarentines overcome: peace and freedom granted to them.
481 27 The Campanian legion, which had forcibly taken possession of Rhegium, besieged there; lay down their arms, and are punished with death. Some young men, who had ill-treated the ambassadors from the Apollonians to the senate of Rome, are delivered up to them. Peace granted to the Picentians. 484 268 Two colonies established; one at Ariminum in Picenum, another at Beneventum in Samnium. Silver coin now, for the first time, used by the Roman people. 485 267 The Umbrians and Sallentines subdued. The number of quaestors increased to eight.. .4 :20 0

16 488 - 90 264 - 62 2
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1 488 - 26 262 Carthaginian state rises. Senate debates, decides to aid Mammertines against Carthaginians & Hiero, king of Syracuse. Roman cavalry crosses sea, defeats Hiero, who seeks & gains peace. This marks beginning of Rome's involvement in Sicilian affairs & conflicts that will lead to Punic Wars. 48W 0 0

489 261 A lustrum: number of citizens amounts to 2 hundred & ninety-two thousand 2 hundred & twenty-four. D. Junius Brutus exhibits first show of gladiators, in honour of his deceased father. 32W 0 0

490 260 The Aesernian colony established. Successful operations against Carthaginians & Vulsinians. 491 26 14W 0 0

17 492 - 95 260 - 57 3
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492 260 Cneius Cornelius, consul, surrounded by Carthaginian fleet; and, being drawn into conference by stratagem, is taken. 18W 0 0

493 259 C. Duilius, consul, engages with & vanquishes Carthaginian fleet; is first commander to whom triumph was decreed for naval victory; in honour of which, he is allowed, when returning to his habitation at night, to be attended with torches & music. L. Cornelius, consul, fights & subdues Sardinians & Corsicans, together with Hanno, Carthaginian general, in island of Sardinia. 61W 0 0

494 258 Atilius Calatinus, consul, drawn into an ambuscade by Carthaginians, is rescued by skill & valour of M. Calpurnius, military tribune, who making sudden attack upon enemy, with body of only 3 hundred men, turns their whole force against himself. 41W 0 0

495 257 Hannibal, commander of Carthaginian fleet which was beaten, is put to death by his soldiers. 17W 0 0

18 496 - 502 256 - 50 6
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496 256 Attilius Regulus, consul, having overcome Carthaginians in sea-fight, passes over into Africa: kills serpent of prodigious magnitude, with great loss of his own men. 26W 0 0

497 255 The senate, on account of his successful conduct of war, not appointing him successor, he writes to them, complaining; and, among other reasons for desiring to be recalled, alledges, that his little farm, being all his subsistence, was going to ruin, owing to mismanagement of hired stewards. 49W 0 0

498 254 A memorable instance of instability of fortune exhibited in person of Regulus, who is overcome in battle, & taken prisoner by Xanthippus, Lacedaemonian general. 26W 0 0

499 253 The Roman fleet shipwrecked; which disaster entirely reverses good fortune which had hitherto attended their affairs. Titus Corucanius, first high priest chosen from among commons. 27W 0 0

500 252 P. Sempronius Sophus & M. Yalerius Maximus, censors, examine into state of senate, & expel thirteen of members of that body. 23W 0 0

501 251 Lustrum, 297,797 citizens. 5W 0 0

502 250 Regulus being sent by Carthaginians to Rome to treat for peace, & an exchange of prisoners, binds himself by oath to return if these objects be not attained; dissuades senate from agreeing to propositions: & then, in observance of his oath, returning to Carthage, is put to death by torture. 52W 0 0

19 496 - 502 256 - 50 6
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1 502 250 C. Caecilius Metellus, having been successful in several engagements with Carthaginians, triumphs with more splendour than had ever yet been seen; thirteen generals of enemy, & one hundred & twenty elephants, being exhibited in procession, 38W 0 0

2 503 249 Claudius Pulcher, consul, obstinately persisting, notwithstanding omens inauspicious, engages enemy's fleet, & is beaten; drowns sacred chickens which would not feed: recalled by senate, & ordered to nominate dictator; he appoints Claudius Glicia, one of lowest of people, who, notwithstanding his being ordered to abdicate office, yet attends celebration of public games in his dictator's robe. 59W 0 0

3 504 248 Atilius Calatinus, first dictator who marches with an army out of Italy. An exchange of prisoners with Carthaginians. 2 colonies established at Fregenae & Brundusium in Sallentine territories. 31W 0 0

4 505 247 A lustrum; 251,222 citizens. 7W 0 0

5 506 246 Claudia, sister of Claudius, who had fought unsuccessfully, in contempt of auspices, being pressed by crowd, as she was returning from game, cries out, I wish my brother alive & had again command of fleet: for which offence she is tried & fined. 46W 0 0

6 507 245 Two praetors now first created. Aulus Postumius, consul, being priest of Mars, forcibly detained in city by Caecilius Metellus, high priest, & not suffered to go forth to war, being obliged by law to attend to sacred duties of his office. 44W 0 0

7 508 24 After several successful engagements with Carthaginians, Caius Lutatius, consul, puts an end to war, 17W 0 0

8 509 24 by gaining complete victory over their fleet, at island of Aegate. Carthaginians sue for peace, which is granted to them. 23W 0 0

9 510 24 The temple of Vesta being on fire, high priest, Caecilius Metellus, saves sacred utensils from flames. 19W 0 0

10 511 24 Two new tribes added, Veline & Quirine. Falisci rebel; are subdued in 6 days. 17W 0 0

20 511 - 33 240 - 19 21
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1 512 240 BC Colony settled at Spoletum.An army sent against Ligurians; being first war with that state. Sardinians & Corsicans rebel, & are subdued. 25W 0 0

2 514 238 BC Tuccia, vestal, found guilty of incest. War declared against Illyrians, who had slain an ambassador; they are subdued & brought to submission. 25W 0 0

3 515 237 BC The number of praetors increased to four. Transalpine Gauls make an irruption into Italy: are conquered & put to sword. 23W 0 0

4 516 236 BC The Roman army, in conjunction with Latins, is said to have amounted to no less than 3 hundred thousand men. 23W 0 0

5 517 235 The Roman army for first time crosses Po; fights with & subdues Insubrian Gauls. 17W 0 0

6 530 22 Claudius Marcellus, consul, having slain Viridomarus, general of Insubrian Gauls, carries off spolia opima. 17W 0 0

7 531 22 The Istrians subdued; also Illyrians, who had rebelled. 11W 0 0

8 532 220 BC The censors hold lustrum, in which number of citizens is found to be 2 hundred & seventy thousand 2 hundred & thirteen. sons of freed-men formed into four tribes; Esquiline, Palatine, Suburran, & Colline. 37W 0 0

9 533 2 Caius Flaminius, censor, constructs Flaminian road, & builds Flaminian circus. 12W 0 0

21 218 - 16 (535 - 7) 2
From Saguntum to Trebia
63 108.5 1:30:25 54.25

1 539 Origin of 2nd Punic War, Hannibal led charge, driven by his father Hamilcar's desire for vengeance over lost territories. 1.4 1:10.

2 540 Hamilcar's death foiled his war plans. Hasdrubal expanded Carthage diplomatically, but was murdered. Romans then set Ebro River as border, freed Saguntum. 1.4 1:10.

3 541 Hannibal’s Character. He became commander-in-chief after Hasdrubal's murder. Earlier, Hanno had opposed Hannibal joining Hasdrubal, fearing it would fuel his ambition & lead to tyranny, repeating his father's ways. 1 :50.

4 542 Hannibal, brilliant & fearless leader, excelled with strategic genius, bravery, & charisma, like his father Hamilcar. He was disciplined, humble, & ruthless, honing his skills under Hasdrubal for future greatness. 1.6 1:20.

5 543 Hannibal expanded his empire through military campaigns, capturing cities & plunder, & defeating Carpetani & their allies with his cavalry & elephants. With region under control, he turned his attention to Saguntum, last independent city, setting stage for clash with

Rome. 2.8 2:20.

6 544 Saguntum, threatened by Hannibal, appealed to

Rome. senate debated & decided to send commissioners to warn Hannibal to stand down, threatening to demand his surrender to Carthage if he refused. 1.3 1:05.

7 545 Hannibal besieged Saguntum, wealthy city, with fierce attacks. Saguntines resisted strongly, counterattacking & inflicting heavy casualties. Hannibal was wounded, & his army's siege works almost abandoned. 1.3 1:05.

8 546 Hannibal's siege of Saguntum intensified, with Carthaginians breaching walls. 2 sides clashed in fierce battle, with heavy casualties & Saguntines fighting desperately. 1.9 1:35.

9 547 Saguntum's defenders launched surprise counterattack, driving Hannibal's forces back. Roman envoys arrived, but Hannibal refused to meet them, instead sending letter to Carthage to maintain his support. .8 :40.

10 548 The Romans send Ambassadors to Carthage, declare war. Hanno, alone in senate, warned of war & devastation if Hannibal's actions continued, urging his surrender to Rome & reparations to Saguntum. 3.1 2:35.

11 549 Hannibal's army secured foothold in Saguntum, leaving city in precarious state. With supplies dwindling & Roman aid absent, Hannibal's return from quelling rebellion signaled bleak fate for city, his grip closing in tighter. 2.5 2:05.

12 550 Hannibal's forces breached Saguntum's walls, capturing part of citadel. Alorcus appealed to senate to surrender, emphasizing harsh terms: restitution, surrender of wealth, & evacuation with only one garment per person, while Alco had defected to Hannibal's side, abandoning his fellow citizens. 1.5 1:15.

13 551 Alorcus urges Saguntum to surrender to Hannibal, citing their dire situation. He advises acceptance of harsh terms: surrendering wealth, leaving with only 2 garments per person & no arms, & relocating. Survival is paramount, he argues, over continued resistance. 1.9 1:35.

14 552 In desperate last stand, Saguntum's leaders burned their wealth & themselves, but Hannibal's forces overran city, slaughtering all adult males who refused to surrender & chose to fight or burn themselves alive, ending city's brave but doomed resistance. .9 :45.

15 553 Hannibal's forces captured Saguntum, seizing valuable booty despite defenders' efforts to destroy it. However, timeline of these events conflicts with Roman records, creating historical discrepancy that has yet to be resolved. 1.1 :55.

16 554 In violation of Treaty, he passes Iberus. Roman senate was overwhelmed with fear & shame as Hannibal's forces, seasoned by victories in Spain, marched towards Italy, threatening to engulf land in war & bring battle to Rome's very gates. 1.1 :55.

17 555 Cornelius & Sempronius drew lots for Spain & Africa. Rome mobilized 6 legions (24,000 infantry, 1800 cavalry), 220 ships & 20 galleys. Sempronius led 16,000 allied infantry & 1800 cavalry to Sicily. Cornelius commanded 2 legions, allied forces & 60 warships. Gaul was secured by 2 legions & allied forces. 1.4 1:10.

18 556 Q. Fabius demanded Carthage explain Hannibal's attack on Saguntum. Carthage denied responsibility, citing treaty loophole. Roman envoy then offered war or peace, & upon declaring war, Carthage accepted, vowing to fight. 2.3 1:55.

19 557 Roman envoys led by Q. Fabius sought Spanish allies against Carthage, but rebuffed after Volciani cited Rome's abandonment of Saguntum, leading to unified rejection from Spanish tribes, prompting shift in focus to Gaul. 2 1:40.

20 558 Roman envoys, led by Q. Fabius, rebuffed in their quest for allies in Spain & Gaul, with Gauls ridiculing their request & citing Rome's own mistreatment of them, leaving Rome to face Carthage alone. 1.4 1:10.

21 559 Hannibal, held accountable for war, granted Spanish soldiers furloughs, then swapped troops: 13,850 infantry, 870 slingers, & 1200 cavalry went to Africa, while 4000 men recruited to defend Carthage, ensuring loyalty & securing his base for Italian campaign. 2 1:40.

22 560 Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal led Spain's forces: 11,850 infantry, 300 Ligurians, 500 Balearics, 450 cavalry, 1800 Numidians & Moors, 300 Ilergetes, & 21 elephants. He commanded 57 warships, including 50 quinqueremes, 2 quadriremes, & 5 triremes, with 32 quinqueremes & 5 triremes ready. Hannibal's dream featured divine guide, massive serpent, & warning not to look back, foretelling Italy's destruction. 1.6 1:20.

23 561 Hannibal crossed Ebro with 90,000 infantry & 12,000 cavalry, bribing Gauls & scouting passes. He conquered tribes, assigning Hanno to command 10,000 infantry & 1000 cavalry. During Pyrenees crossing, 3000 Carpetani deserted; Hannibal sent back 7000 soldiers. 1 :50.

24 562 Hannibal crossed Pyrenees, camping at Iliberri. Gauls armed themselves at Ruscino, but Hannibal's envoys negotiated peaceful passage, bribing them to allow his army to pass through their territory unmolested. .9 :45.

25 563 Boii revolted, attacking colonists & commissioners. Commissioners fled to Mutina, which was besieged. Gauls captured envoys, demanding hostages. Manlius' army was ambushed twice, losing 1,200 men & 6 standards, before holding off Gauls at Tannetum. 2.3 1:55.

26 564 Rome sent Atilius with 5000 men to relieve Manlius. Scipio sailed with 60 warships & sent 300 cavalry to scout Hannibal, who bribed tribes & reached Volcae territory, where they prepared to resist him, gathering & building boats for his army. 1.8 1:30.

27 565 Hannibal sent Hanno's division 25 miles upriver to cross & attack from behind. They built rafts & ferried across, then signaled with smoke. Hannibal's main army followed, crossing on rafts, boats, & barges with horses towed or carried alongside. 1.4 1:10.

28 566 Gauls, dismayed by Hannibal's crossing, attacked by Hanno & dispersed. Hannibal formed camp, transporting elephants on 200-foot raft connected to 100-foot raft. Elephants driven on, showing fear in mid-channel, but some fell overboard & swam to safety. 2.2 1:50.

29 567 Hannibal's 500 Numidians fought 300 Romans, with 160 Romans & over 200 Numidians falling. He marched towards Italy, despite his army's fear of Alpine passage. 1.4 1:10.

30 568 Hannibal rallied his troops, rebuking fear & urging them to press on to Italy, recalling their Spanish conquests & downplaying Alps. He challenged them to match Gauls who captured Rome, & urged them to reach Tiber. 1.9 1:35.

31 569 Hannibal's army marched up Rhone, avoiding Romans, & settled tribal dispute, gaining supplies. They then marched to Durance river, swollen by rain, & struggled to cross it. 1.8 1:30.

32 570 Hannibal's army reached Alps, sparking fear. He halted, sent scouts, & learned pass was only guarded by day. Under cover of night, he swiftly seized heights, leaving most troops & baggage behind. 2.2 1:50.

33 571 Hannibal's army navigated treacherous Alps, fending off native attack & panicked horses. He restored order, captured village & hamlets, & secured supplies, enabling his army to make significant progress. 1.8 1:30.

34 572 Hannibal's army was ambushed in mountain pass by treacherous locals, who attacked from all sides, separating Hannibal from his cavalry & baggage & leaving him in precarious position. 1.6 1:20.

35 573 Hannibal's army conquered Alps, surviving attacks & treacherous terrain. From summit, they gazed upon Italy & descended, fueled by Hannibal's vision of victory. 1.9 1:35.

36 574 Hannibal's army faced treacherous pass, blocked by landslip. They navigated perilous snow & ice route, slipping & struggling to advance, with baggage animals stuck in frozen landscape. 1.2 1:00.

37 575 Hannibal's army, exhausted, broke through rocky barrier & descended to valleys, where they found relief & rest after their treacherous journey, finally reaching open plains & more hospitable land. 1 :50.

38 576 Hannibal's army entered Italy after 5 months with 20,000-100,000 infantry & 6,000-20,000 cavalry. Alpine route is disputed between Poenine & Cremonian ranges, but likely reached Taurini tribe, while Poenine was probably closed due to semi-German tribes. 1.4 1:10.

39 577 Hannibal's army, weakened by their journey, faced Scipio's forces. Hannibal took Taurini capital & sought Gaulish allies. armies approached, their leaders having mutual respect. Scipio crossed Po, readying for battle. 1.7 1:25.

40 578 Scipio's speech: "Soldiers, we'll defeat Hannibal's weakened army, worn out by their journey. They're few, starving, & battered. We've beaten them before, & we'll do it again. gods have weakened them, & we'll finish job." 2 1:40.

41 579 "I chose to fight Hannibal. We've beaten them before, & we'll do it again. They're driven by guilt, not courage. We showed them mercy, but they're attacking our homes. We must resist!" 2.9 2:25.

42 580 Hannibal motivated his troops by offering prisoners chance to fight for freedom. They eagerly accepted, seizing arms & dancing with joy. crowd cheered, praising both victory & brave death, inspiring troops. .8 :40.

43 581 "Soldiers, you've seen courage. We're trapped, but Fortune offers victory. Don't fear

Rome. I know your bravery. Let's win!" 3 2:30.

44 582 "Courage surrounds me. We fight for freedom, driven by indignation. Only force will secure our victory. Be brave, death is not an option." 1.7 1:25.

45 583 Hannibal rallied his troops, promising rewards: land, money, citizenship, & freedom. He vowed to fulfill these promises, sacrificing lamb to gods. soldiers, convinced & eager, clamored for battle. 1.5 1:15.

46 584 Hannibal rallied his troops, promising rewards: land, money, citizenship, & freedom. He vowed to fulfill these promises, sacrificing lamb to gods. soldiers, convinced & eager, clamored for battle. 1.7 1:25.

47 585 Scipio's force clashed with Hannibal's cavalry. battle was intense, with Numidians attacking from behind. Scipio was wounded, but his son rescued him. Romans retreated in order. 1.7 1:25.

48 586 Defeats Romans at Ticinus. Gaulish auxiliaries defected to Hannibal, prompting Scipio to move his camp to Trebia River. Hannibal's cavalry pursued but was distracted, allowing Romans to escape. Scipio fortified his camp, while Hannibal captured Clastidium, securing supplies. 1.9 1:35.

49 587 Carthaginians sent 20 ships to Italy, but 12 captured. Prisoners revealed 35 more ships coming. King Hiero warned Romans, who readied 12 ships & prepared for war. 2 1:40.

50 588 Romans sought combat, Carthaginians fled. 7 ships captured, 1700 prisoners w/ 3 nobles. Consul Sempronius arrived, King Hiero offered aid, warned of uprisings. Romans sailed for Lilybaeum. 1.4 1:10.

51 589 Consul left Lilybaeum, took Malta (2000 troops), sailed to Insulae Vulcani, & joined war against Hannibal. Sent army to Ariminum, legate protected coast with 25 ships, & joined colleague at Trebia with 10 ships, making fleet of 50. 1.2 1:00.

52 590 Rome's forces faced Hannibal, but one consul delayed due to injury. Gauls sought Rome's help against Hannibal's raids. Sempronius sent cavalry & javelin men to defend them, attacking Hannibal's forces & inflicting losses. battle was undecided. 2 1:40.

53 591 Sempronius thought Scipio was fearful, not injured, & pushed for battle. Hannibal exploited this, gathering intel & seeking an ambush spot. 2.3 1:55.

54 592 Hannibal set an ambush with 200 men (100 infantry, 100 cavalry) + 1800 reinforcements, totaling 2000 troops. Numidian cavalry (1000) lured Romans across Trebia, then retreated, drawing them into ambush. Sempronius led 6000 infantry into battle, weakened by cold, hunger, & fatigue. 2 1:40.

55 593 Hannibal's forces (8000 light infantry, 10,000 cavalry, elephants) defeated Romans (18,000 troops, 20,000 allies) in chaotic battle. Exhausted Romans overwhelmed by fresh Carthaginians, with elephants stampeding through their ranks, causing terror & panic. 1.8 1:30.

56 594 Hannibal's elephants caused chaos, & 10,000 Romans fought through Carthaginians, suffering heavy losses. Many escaped, but others swept away, captured, or froze to death. Scipio led remaining 18,000 Romans to Cremona, abandoning most of elephants & men to cold, ending Battle of Trebia. 1.4 1:10.

57 595 Rome panicked after Trebia, fearing Hannibal's approach. Sempronius arrived, held elections, & appointed new consuls. Romans faced raids in winter quarters. Hannibal failed to take Emporium, but defeated 35,000 at Victumviae, sacking city & committing atrocities, spreading terror throughout Rome. 2.3 1:55.

58 596 Hannibal's army was hit by severe storm, causing chaos & terror. Heavy rain & wind forced them to halt, resulting in loss of many men & animals, including 7 elephants, over 2 days. 1.6 1:20.

59 597 Hannibal's 12,000 infantry & 5,000 cavalry fought Sempronius' forces, with 600 infantry & 300 cavalry casualties on both sides. Hannibal withdrew to Liguria, Sempronius to Luca, & Gauls handed over 2 quaestors, 3 tribunes, & 5 equestrian order members to Hannibal. 1.7 1:25.

60 598 Gnaus Cornelius Scipio defeats Cartheginians in Spain & takes Hanno their General Prisoner. 1.4 1:10.

61 599 Hasdrubal's 8,000 infantry & 1,000 cavalry attacked Roman marines near Tarracona, then retreated. Scipio responded, punishing naval captains. Hasdrubal instigated Ilergetes' revolt, prompting Scipio's 30-day siege of Ausetani city, which surrendered & paid 20 talents. 1.7 1:25.

62 600 Scipio defeated Hanno in Spain, killing 6,000 enemy soldiers, capturing 2,000 (including Hanno), & seizing camp & Cissis, gaining valuable possessions. 1.7 1:25.

63 601 A 6-month-old child shouted "Io Triumphe"; an ox climbed 3 stories; phantom navy appeared. Other omens: lightning, crow on Juno's couch, wolf stealing sword. Expiations: 9-day feast, City purification, sacrifices, 40-pound gold offering to Juno, lectisternia for Juventas, Fortuna, & Hercules. Vows for 10 years' safety alleviated fears. 2.8 2:20.

22 216 (537)
Disaster of Cannae
61 119 1:39:10 119

1 602 Hannibal fled winter quarters (March 15th) as Gauls turned against him. In Rome, Cn. Servilius became consul, criticizing C. Flaminius' election. 15 omens reported, prompting senate-decreed sacrifices & ceremonies, including golden thunderbolt for Jupiter & festival day (December) that became Saturnalia. 3.5 2:55.

2 603 Hannibal's army navigated treacherous Arno marshes, led by veterans. Waist-deep water & mud slowed their progress, sapping their strength. Gauls struggled, & Hannibal, on an elephant due to eye issues, lost sight in one eye, as they pushed forward to confront Flaminius at Arretium. 1.8 1:30.

3 604 Hannibal camped & gathered intel on Flaminius' army, provoking him with visible plundering. Flaminius, ignoring advice & omens, ordered hasty march & battle, driven by confidence. 2.9 2:25.

4 605 Hannibal provoked Flaminius, then ambushed him near Lake Trasumennus, using terrain to surround & attack Romans in fog, catching them off guard. 1.5 1:15.

5 606 Caius Flaminius Consul an inconsiderate man, having gone fourth In opposition to omens, dug up standard which could not otherwise be Raised & being thrown from his horse immediately after he had mounted 1.8 1:30.

6 607 The Roman army was defeated, with Flaminius slain & many soldiers drowning or being killed. About 6,000 escaped, but later forced to surrender & chained by Maharbal, despite promises of mercy, showcasing Hannibal's tactics. 1.9 1:35.

7 608 Is insnared by Hannibal & cut off by his army near Trasumennus Lake 3,000 who had escaped are placed in Chains by Hannibal, in violation of pledges given. Distress occasioned in Rome by intelligence 2.3 1:55.

8 609 4,000 Roman cavalry defeated, citizens alarmed. Fabius Maximus appointed Dictator, Minucius Rufus his deputy, to defend Rome, fortify city, & destroy bridges, as Hannibal's threat looms close. 1.3 1:05.

9 610 Sibylline Books consulted & sacred spring decreed. 2.1 1:45.

10 611 Senate consults Pontifical College, leading to "Sacred Spring" vow. Assembly approves, promising Jupiter sacrifices. Great Games vowed at 333,333 ases, plus 300 oxen. Three-day lectisternium with 6 couches follows. Fabius Maximus vows Venus Erycina temple, Otacilius vows Mens temple. 2.2 1:50.

11 612 Senate consults Pontifical College, leading to "Sacred Spring" vow. Assembly approves Jupiter sacrifices. Great Games vowed at 333,333 ases, 300 oxen. Three-day lectisternium, 6 couches. Fabius Maximus: Venus Erycina temple. Otacilius: Mens temple. 1.6 1:20.

12 613 Fabius Maximus led army against Hannibal, cautious & vigilant. Hannibal mocked Romans, but Fabius maintained safe distance, using small skirmishes to wear him down. Minucius, his deputy, criticized Fabius's tactics as cowardly, seeking to supplant him. 2.2 1:50.

13 614 Hannibal invaded Samnium, capturing Telesia & ravaging Beneventum. He attempted to draw Fabius into battle, but was misdirected to Casilinum. Maharbal's cavalry ravaged Falernian land, causing destruction & terror, yet Rome's allies remained loyal. 1.8 1:30.

14 615 Marcus Minucius Master of Horse rash in impetuous man inlays against caution of Fabius & maintains equality of command with him. Hannibal attempts to excite suspicion of fidelity of Fabius by sparing his farm by ravaging with fire whole country around it. 2.9 2:25.

15 616 Fabius remained vigilant, anticipating Hannibal's moves. Hannibal sought winter base, & Fabius positioned his troops accordingly. Mancinus' cavalry skirmished with Numidians, then rejoined Fabius' camp, where Minucius had arrived. combined army prepared to face Hannibal. 2.1 1:45.

16 617 Hannibal's army fought Romans, losing 800 men to Rome's 200. He devised plan: 2000 oxen with torches on their horns would be driven up mountains at night, creating diversion for his army's escape, led by Hasdrubal. 1.3 1:05.

17 618 Hannibal's army used flaming oxen to create diversion, causing Roman guards to flee in panic. His troops encountered Romans but held off attacking until dawn, when they emerged victorious & camped in Allifae. 1.2 1:00.

18 619 Fabius avoided night battle, suspecting an ambush. Romans fought Carthaginians, but Spanish reinforcements prevailed. Fabius shadowed Hannibal, keeping between him & Rome, then left for Rome, warning Master of Horse to be cautious. 1.2 1:00.

19 620 Hasdrubal prepared for battle in Spain with 40 ships & an army. Scipio sailed to meet him with 35 ships, but Carthaginian scouts spotted Romans, causing chaos. Carthaginians scrambled to embark, & Romans attacked, capturing 2 ships & sinking 4. 2.5 2:05.

20 621 Romans captured 25/40 Carthaginian ships, gaining sea mastery. They sacked Onusa, ravaged countryside, & burned houses near New Carthage. 120+ tribes submitted, providing hostages. Romans advanced to Castulo, while Hasdrubal fled to Lusitania. 1.5 1:15.

21 622 Mandonius & Indibilis rebelled, harassing Roman-allied lands. Scipio's tribune defeated them. Hasdrubal returned to defend allies, but Celtiberi, persuaded by Scipio, invaded New Carthage, capturing 3 towns, defeating Hasdrubal twice, killing 15,000, taking 4,000 prisoners. .9 :45.

22 623 Succeses in Spain. P. Scipio arrived with 30 ships & 8000 troops, capturing Saguntum & releasing 800 hostages. Abelux's persuasion gained Roman goodwill, sparking rebellion against Carthage. Winter halted revolt, but Romans gained strategic advantage. 3.8 3:10.

23 624 In Spain, Romans succeeded under Scipio. In Italy, Fabius frustrated Hannibal, but his tactics unpopular. Hannibal spared Fabius' property, fueling rumors. Fabius paid for 247 excess prisoners from his own land sale, earning credit. Hannibal occupied camp near Gereonium, sending out divisions to collect corn. 1.8 1:30.

24 625 Minucius' Romans planned to attack Hannibal's camp. Hannibal sent division to collect corn & moved closer. Romans drove off Numidians, attacked foragers, & inflicted severe losses. Decimus arrived with 8000 foot & 500 horse, causing Hannibal to retreat. Romans captured 2 positions, killing 6000 enemy, but lost 5000. 2.4 2:00.

25 626 Hannibal, after ravaging Campania, is shut up by Fabius in valley near town of Casilinum, but escapes by night, putting to flight Romans on Guard by oxen with lighted faggots attached to their horns. 3 2:30.

26 627 Hannibal, anticipating Minucius' attack, used 200 men to distract him while hiding 5,000 troops in valley. Minucius attacked with 20,000 legions, but Hannibal's concealed troops emerged, surrounding Romans & causing chaos. Romans, despite initial bravery, overwhelmed & lost all will to fight or flee. 1 :50.

27 628 Army is divided between them & Minucius engages Hannibal in unfavorable position is reduced to extremity of danger & is rescued by dictator & Places himself under his authority. 1.6 1:20.

28 629 Hannibal, informed by deserters & scouts, used 200 men to distract Minucius' 20,000 legions, while hiding 5,000 troops in caverns. Minucius attacked, but Hannibal's concealed troops emerged, surrounding Romans, causing chaos, & securing decisive victory. 2.1 1:45.

29 630 Fabius led his troops to victory, forcing Hannibal's retreat. Minucius conceded, praising Fabius, & joined him, saluting him as "Father". soldiers hailed Fabius' men as "Patrons", & Minucius acknowledged Fabius' superior leadership, ending day with newfound respect. 1.9 1:35.

30 631 Minucius surrendered his command to Fabius, saluting him as "Father". He repealed their co-dictatorship, acknowledging Fabius' superior leadership. Fabius welcomed soldiers, boosting his reputation in Rome & among Carthaginians, who saw united Roman force. Hannibal recognized their renewed strength, saying, "The cloud has burst upon us in rain & storm". 2.1 1:45.

31 632 Gnaeus Servilius Geminus led 120 ships, collecting hostages & raiding Menix. In Africa, his forces ambushed, losing 1,000 men, including Sempronius Blaesus. fleet fled to Sicily, & Servilius returned to Italy, recalled by Fabius, who was ending his 6-month term as pro-dictator. 2.1 1:45.

32 633 Fabius' army went to Atilius, Servilius Geminus took Minucius' army, & they fortified winter quarters, harassing Hannibal's army without general engagement. Hannibal's situation was desperate. Neapolitan envoys offered Rome 40 golden bowls, but only one was accepted, with thanks for their goodwill. 1.8 1:30.

33 634 A Carthaginian spy was caught, mutilated, & exiled. 25 slaves crucified for conspiracy, & their informer rewarded. Ambassadors went to Macedon, Liguria, & Illyria. Despite war, Rome attended to global affairs. vow to build Concord temple was fulfilled, but Dictator's election deemed invalid, leading to an interregnum. 1.7 1:25.

34 635 2 B.C., Servilius & Regulus extended their commands. Varro, demagogue, gained popularity amid electoral strife, attacking leaders & gaining support. people sought victory, hoping plebeian consul would end war. 2.6 2:10.

35 636 Excitement among plebs led to Varro's election as consul, with power to appoint his colleague. nobility forced Paulus to run, despite his reluctance, & he was elected to oppose Varro. Experienced praetors chosen: Matho, Philus, Marcellus (for Sicily), & Albinus (for Gaul), passing over new candidates. 1.5 1:15.

36 637 The armies increased by 10,000 recruits & four new legions, totaling 8 legions, with each legion strengthened by 1,000 infantry & 100 cavalry, totaling 5,000 infantry & 300 cavalry per legion, & 87,200 men at Battle of Cannae. 1.7 1:25.

37 638 Hiero's fleet arrived at Ostia with supplies: 220-pound golden statue of Victory, 300,000 pecks of wheat, 200,000 of barley, 1000 archers, & slingers. senate thanked Hiero, accepted statue, & granted permission to cross over to Africa with 25 quinqueremes . 1.9 1:35.

38 639 Consuls enrolled army, waited for allies, & administered oath. Varro boasted of swift victory, while Paulus urged caution, emphasizing need for understanding before action. 1.8 1:30.

39 640 Fabius warns Paulus that Varro's impulsiveness is greater threat than Hannibal, & advises caution, vigilance, & reason. He urges Paulus to resist pressure & prioritize careful planning, seeking respect & true glory. 2.3 1:55.

40 641 Paulus acknowledged Fabius' advice, but feared Varro's opposition. army was divided into 2 camps, with Servilius leading smaller camp with one legion & 2,000 allies. Hannibal saw opportunity in their arrival, despite his army's desperation. 2.8 2:20.

41 642 Romans defeated Carthaginians, killing 1,700 & losing 100. Varro criticized Paulus for halting pursuit. Hannibal set trap, hiding forces & luring Romans with abandoned camp & baggage, hoping to surprise them. 1.6 1:20.

42 643 Romans found Carthaginian camp empty, tents & fires still burning. Soldiers clamored to pursue, but Paulus urged caution. Varro advanced, then 2 escaped slaves revealed Hannibal's ambush, halting pursuit & averting disaster. 1.7 1:25.

43 644 Hannibal's ruse failed, & he fled to Apulia, leaving decoy campfires & tents. His troops, diverse & restless, threatened mutiny. Statilius discovered his plan, & Romans pursued, destined for disastrous Battle of Cannae, where Hannibal's strategy would prevail. 1.3 1:05.

44 645 At Cannae, Hannibal lured Romans into trap. Roman consuls Paulus & Varro argued over strategy, Paulus urging caution & Varro pushing for action. dispute delayed battle, with Paulus refusing to take responsibility for potential disaster. soldiers eager to fight, but consuls' disagreement hindered their chances. 2 1:40.

45 646 Hannibal's Numidians attacked Roman water gatherers, causing chaos. Romans eager to respond, but Paulus held back. Next day, Varro led Romans into battle without consulting Paulus, forming up with cavalry, infantry, & allies. Paulus & Varro took positions on wings, ready to face Hannibal. 2.5 2:05.

46 647 Hannibal deployed his forces: 40,000 infantry (Gauls, Spaniards, Africans with Roman weapons) & 10,000 cavalry (Gaulish & Spanish on left, Numidian on right). His brothers commanded wings & center. sun shone obliquely, & wind blew dust into Romans' faces, reducing visibility. 1.6 1:20.

47 648 Light infantry clashed, then Gauls & Spaniards battled Roman cavalry. Romans fled, & infantry fought. Gauls & Spaniards held out until Romans broke through, routing them. Surrounded by Africans, Romans faced fierce, one-sided battle. 2.4 2:00.

48 649 Numidians feigned surrender, then attacked Roman rear, causing panic & slaughter. Hasdrubal sent Numidians to pursue fleeing Romans & reinforcements to aid weary Africans, exploiting Roman chaos & disorder. 2.3 1:55.

49 650 Paulus, wounded, fought on foot, refusing to flee. He was killed by Hannibal's forces. Romans suffered devastating defeat: 45,500 infantry & 2700 cavalry killed. Survivors: 10,000 to larger camp, 7000 to smaller, 2000 to Cannae (soon surrounded), & Varro escaped to Venusia with 50 cavalry. 1.4 1:10.

50 651 Cannae, battle as infamous as Allia, saw 45,500 Romans killed. P. Sempronius Tuditanus led 600 men in brave breakout, shields protecting them from Numidian javelins. They joined 10,000 others, reaching Canusium safely in daring escape fueled by instinct & courage. 2 1:40.

51 652 Hannibal's officers urged him to rest, but Maharbal pushed for immediate action, predicting capture of Rome within 5 days. Hannibal hesitated, & Maharbal criticized him, saying, "You know how to win, but not how to use it." next day, they surveyed battlefield, finding 45,500 dead Romans & Numidian soldier being pulled from under dead Roman. 1.5 1:15.

52 653 Hannibal's army captured 16,000 Romans, with terms set for ransom. 4,000 infantry & 200 cavalry escaped to Canusium. Hannibal's troops secured 8,000 pounds of silver & buried 8,000 dead soldiers. escapees aided by Busa, who earned public honors. 1.5 1:15.

53 654 Scipio foiled plot by Metellus & others to abandon Italy, confronting them with sword in hand & forcing them to swear an oath of loyalty to Republic. 1.6 1:20.

54 655 4,500 Roman soldiers found refuge at Venusia, joined by Varro's forces at Canusium. Rome feared worst, believing 12,000 soldiers & both consuls lost, & that Hannibal controlled most of Italy. Despite this, Rome persevered. 1.8 1:30.

55 656 Fabius Maximus advised senate to gather intel on Hannibal's plans & calm city by suppressing public lamentations, keeping women indoors, & emphasizing city's walls as only hope for safety. 1.5 1:15.

56 657 They go out in body to meet Varro & thank him for not having despaired Commonwealth. 1.2 1:00.

57 658 8,000 slaves enlisted by Romans. 2 1:40.

58 659 Design projected by some noble youths of quitting Italy in despair after this calamity is intrepidly quashed by Publius Cornelius Scipio, Military Tribune Afterwards surnamed Africanus. 1.3 1:05.

59 660 Refuse to ransom captives. M. Junius appealed to senate to ransom prisoners, citing bravery at Cannae, past precedents, & loyalty. He highlighted their harsh conditions & families' anxiety, urging compassion & warning against abandoning them to Hannibal's mercy. 3.5 2:55.

60 661 Torquatus opposed ransoming 7,000 prisoners, labeling them cowards who refused to escape when urged by Tuditanus. He criticized their surrender, praising 600 who broke through enemy lines, & believed ransoming others would set bad precedent, undermining military discipline & Rome's values. 5.5 4:35.

61 662 The senate refused to ransom 7,000 prisoners, citing tradition & treasury concerns. 10 prisoners remained in Rome, while others returned to Hannibal. Rome's resolve remained unbroken, with consul receiving grand procession & thanks. 2.6 2:10.

23 216 - 14 (537 - 9) 2
Hannibal at Capua
40 82.5 1:08:45 41.25

1 663 Hannibal, after Cannae, took Compsa in Samnium with local aid, then split his army. He sent Mago to gather allies while he marched on Neapolis, seeking port. His Numidians ambushed Neapolis cavalry, killing or capturing nobles, including Hegeas. Strong walls deterred him from attacking city. 1.6 1:20.

2 664 Pacuvius Calavius, seeking power in Capua, exploited fear of Hannibal's army to manipulate senate & populace. He pretended to join revolt, took hostages, & locked senators in their chamber, while pretending to support populace. 1.8 1:30.

3 665 Pacuvius Calavius manipulated Capua's populace, exploiting their anger towards senate. He feigned offering them control, but ultimately demonstrated their inability to replace corrupt senators, leading to reluctant acceptance of existing regime. 2.1 1:45.

4 666 Pacuvius's cleverness led to his dominance, turning senators into yes-men. Capua sank into depravity, ignoring authority & indulging in extravagance. Post-Cannae, they scorned Rome, but family connections & Capuan cavalry in Sicily kept them loyal. 1.3 1:05.

5 667 Cursor, with weak force at Venusia, begged Capua to help Rome after Cannae's defeat. He appealed to their loyalty, citing Rome's past protection & shared citizenship. He requested 30,000 infantry & 4,000 cavalry to save Rome & Italy from Hannibal's brutal army, emphasizing desperate need for their aid. 2.7 2:15.

6 668 The Capuan envoys, swayed by Virrius, returned home & sparked revolt against Rome, mocking Roman authority. They soon sent emissaries to Hannibal, poised to defect to Carthaginian side, despite some senators' efforts to maintain loyalty to Rome. 1.3 1:05.

7 669 Hannibal allied with Capua, offering autonomy & freeing Romans, but city brutalized Roman citizens, jailed Decius Magius for speaking out, & enthusiastically welcomed Hannibal, who addressed senate while delaying action against Magius. 2.4 2:00.

8 670 Pacuvius Calavius sought Hannibal's pardon for his son, who remained loyal to

Rome. At banquet, youth declined drinks, then revealed hidden sword to his father, proposing to assassinate Hannibal & restore their alliance with Rome, offering his father chance to leave before act. 1.6 1:20.

9 671 Pacuvius Calavius, fearful & emotional, begged his son to spare Hannibal, appealing to their bond & futility of attempt. He urged his son to avoid further betraying their country, after already rebelling against Rome & seeking peace with Hannibal. son, moved by his father's words, relinquished his sword & returned to banquet, abandoning his assassination plan. 2 1:40.

10 672 Hannibal demanded Decius Magius' surrender, & Capuan senate surrendered him. He was arrested & sent to Carthage, but storm led to his diversion to Cyrenae, where King Ptolemy freed him after hearing his story. Magius then went to Rome, seeking refuge & protection. 2.4 2:00.

11 673 Fabius Pictor returned from Delphi with oracle's response, promising Roman victory. Mago reported to Carthaginian senate: Hannibal defeated 6 Roman commanders at Cannae, killing 200,000 soldiers, capturing 50,000 & gaining allegiance of Italian cities, including Capua. 2 1:40.

12 674 Mago reported victory at Cannae, displaying gold rings taken from Roman knights. Himilco criticized Hanno, who replied that he still disapproved of war, noting that no Latin towns or Roman soldiers had defected to Carthage, despite win. Hanno questioned celebration, urging more cautious approach. 2.8 2:20.

13 675 Hanno questioned Mago about Roman peace envoys, but none came. senate dismissed Hanno's cautionary words & voted to send 4000 Numidians, 40 elephants, & 500 talents of silver to Hannibal, & dispatched Bostar to raise 20,000 infantry & 4000 cavalry in Spain. 1.4 1:10.

14 676 The Romans enlisted 6000 men, arming them with Gaulish spoils, & marched on Nola with 25,000 soldiers. Hannibal hoped for surrender, but loyal Nolan senate feared revolt & gained time. Marcellus reinforced city with his army, arriving via Caiatia, Saticula, Trebia, & Suessula, to counter Hannibal's 25,000 soldiers. 2.2 1:50.

15 677 Hannibal sought seaport, abandoning Nola for Neapolis, but Silanus held it. He captured Nuceria through famine, allowing inhabitants to leave, but none stayed. city was plundered & burnt. Marcellus controlled Nola, winning over Bantius, young cavalryman, with praise & rewards, preventing betrayal. 2.7 2:15.

16 678 Marcellus divided his army into 3 divisions at Nola's gates, surprising Hannibal who expected revolt. Hannibal sent troops back to camp, but Marcellus ordered sudden attack, & Romans burst out, killing 2800 Carthaginians while losing only 500. 2.9 2:25.

17 679 Hannibal withdrew to Acerrae, but Marcellus secured Nola, executing 70 traitors. Hannibal besieged Acerrae, leading to citizens' escape. He then marched to Casilinum, held by 500 Praenestines & some Roman troops, who massacred townsmen & took possession of city, joined by Perusian cohort of 460 men. 1.9 1:35.

18 680 Hannibal's troops repelled at Casilinum, & he abandoned siege after losses. His army indulged in pleasures while wintering in Capua, leading to decline in discipline & strength, mistake considered more costly than his delay after Cannae, & weakening his forces significantly. 3 2:30.

19 681 Hannibal besieged Casilinum, causing hunger in Roman garrison. Gracchus sent corn via river, but Hannibal discovered it. townspeople ate leather & grass before being ransomed for gold. Praenestine garrison survived, returning home to praise for their commander, Marcus Anicius. 2.9 2:25.

20 682 Casilinum was returned to Campanians with Carthaginian garrison. Praenestine troops rewarded, but Petelia, loyal to Rome, was attacked & abandoned by senate due to limited resources. Petelians prepared to defend their city, gathering resources & readying for siege. 1.6 1:20.

21 683 Sicily & Sardinia requested aid, but senate couldn't help. T. Otacilius got assistance from Hiero & Sicilian allies. In Rome, M. Minucius appointed finance commissioners: L. Aemilius Papus, M. Atilius Regulus, & L. Scribonius Libo. New pontiffs appointed to replace those lost. 1.3 1:05.

22 684 The senate aimed to address its declining membership, but proposal to grant citizenship to Latin senators was met with opposition. idea was seen as ill-timed & potentially alienating to allies. Instead, M. Fabius Buteo was appointed Dictator to review & revise senate's membership. 2 1:40.

23 685 Fabius, as Dictator, addressed unconventional circumstances of his appointment, then filled senate vacancies with qualified individuals. He resigned, mingled with citizens, & returned home without ceremony, before quietly departing for army. 1.7 1:25.

24 686 Fabius conducted elections for new consuls, announcing victories of L. Postumius & Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. However, Postumius' army was soon ambushed & massacred in Gaul, leaving few survivors, & his body was desecrated by Gauls. 2.6 2:10.

25 687 Rome was shocked by defeat in Gaul, but senate intervened, urging citizens to resume normal life. Ti. Sempronius presented plan to reassign armies, transfer troops, & extend commands, prioritizing war against Hannibal & Carthage. senate approved, shifting focus from Gaul to larger threat. 1.8 1:30.

26 688 The Scipios advanced in Spain, but Hasdrubal's plans foiled by defections & tribal rebellion. He attacked Chalbus, but was forced to retreat, & his Numidian cavalry & Moorish darts struggled against native Spaniards. 1.9 1:35.

27 689 The Scipios captured Ascua, but then defeated by Hasdrubal's army. tribe surrendered & defected to Rome after learning of Hasdrubal's departure. He warned Carthage that leaving Spain would mean losing it to Rome. 2 1:40.

28 690 Himilco defended Spain against Romans, meeting with Hasdrubal to deliver senate's orders. Hasdrubal collected funds & marched towards Italy, but Scipios prepared to stop him by attacking his allies. They targeted Hibera, but Hasdrubal counterattacked, forcing direct confrontation. 1.9 1:35.

29 691 The Roman army defeated Carthaginians, who lacked motivation & fled quickly. Romans secured decisive victory, gaining control of region & ending Hasdrubal's plans to march on Italy. news brought relief to Rome, as threat to their homeland was finally over. 2.6 2:10.

30 692 Carthaginians took Petelia, Consentia, & Croton, while Locri defected. Only Rhegium stayed loyal to

Rome. Gelo joined Carthaginians in Sicily but died soon after. Fabius Maximus dedicated temple in Rome, marking end of war's 3rd year. 2.5 2:05.

31 693 Roman Senate: doubled war tax, transferred legions, sent Marcellus to command, dedicated temples, granted citizenship, elected Marcellus (resigned due to bad omen), appointed Fabius Maximus. People saw: fiery seas, strange animal birth, sweating statues, stone shower. Religious ceremonies held. 2.5 2:05.

32 694 Roman consuls divided armies, Carthage sent forces to Spain & Sardinia. Roman consuls prepared for war, gathering troops & supplies. Praetors defended Apulia, Rome's coast, Picenum, & commanded Sicily fleet. 2.6 2:10.

33 695 King Philip allied with Hannibal, sending ambassadors to form pact. They avoided Roman ports, met with Laevinus, & reached Hannibal's camp. treaty: Philip attacks Italy, Hannibal gets Italy & Rome, & Hannibal helps Philip conquer Greece & Macedonian cities. 1.7 1:25.

34 696 Hannibal's envoys captured by Rome while sailing to Greece, revealing treaty with King Philip against

Rome. Sardinia planned to revolt, so Rome sent Torquatus with troops. Meanwhile, Hasdrubal's fleet was damaged in storm & sought repairs. 2.3 1:55.

35 697 Campanians plotted against Cumae, but Roman consul Sempronius discovered their plan & launched surprise night attack, killing over 2000 Campanians & capturing 34 standards. 2.8 2:20.

36 698 Gracchus captured enemy camp at Hamae, losing fewer than 100 men. Hannibal found camp abandoned & his allies dead. Gracchus remained in Cumae, hesitant to desert his allies. Hannibal's presence threatened Cumae, & Gracchus' untested army had won victory at minimal cost. 1.3 1:05.

37 699 Sempronius was besieged, but his tower on wall helped repel Carthaginians. sortie killed 1300 Carthaginians & captured 59. Next day, Hannibal formed battle line but retreated without fighting. Meanwhile, Ti. Sempronius "Longus" defeated Hanno at Grumentum, killing 2000, capturing 280 men & 41 standards. 1.5 1:15.

38 700 Gracchus intercepted 5 ships carrying Macedonian & Carthaginian agents to

Rome. letters & agents sent to senate, causing alarm. Orders given to equip 20 vessels, & Publius Valerius was instructed to command fleet & protect Italy's coast, gathering intel on Macedon's hostile intentions. 1.9 1:35.

39 701 One of captured ships escaped & alerted Philip to capture of his agents. He sent 2nd embassy, which succeeded. seizure of ship delayed war. Fabius expiated portents, crossed Vulturnus, & resumed campaign, capturing Combulteria, Trebula, & Austicula, & imprisoning Hannibal's garrisons. 1.1 :55.

40 702 T. Manlius resumed operations in Sardinia with 22,000 infantry & 1200 cavalry. He defeated Hostus, killing 3000 Sardinians & capturing 800. Carthaginian fleet under Hasdrubal arrived, reviving Sardinian hopes. Manlius checked their ravages, & four-hour battle ensued, resulting in 12,000 enemy dead, 3700 prisoners, & 27 captured standards. 1.7 1:25.

24 214 - 12 (539 - 41) 2
Revolution in Syracuse
49 97.3 1:21:05 48.65

1 712 Hanno, with Bruttian assistance, attempted to capture Greek cities in Italy. Locri, loyal to Rome, prepared for siege. Hamilcar's cavalry scattered inhabitants, & conference led to city's surrender. Carthaginians entered Locri, & treaty was concluded, granting independence & mutual support. 2.5 2:05.

2 713 The Bruttians, unhappy with Hannibal's peace treaty, attacked Croto, Greek city, without Carthaginian aid. They sought to gain seaport & plunder. Divisions within Croto aided Bruttians, who captured city with ease, except for citadel, where aristocrats & Aristomachus fled. 1.8 1:30.

3 714 Before Pyrrhus' war, Croto had 12-mile wall circuit. After devastation, only half was inhabited. citadel, once protected by nature & walls, was besieged by Bruttians & populace. Hanno intervened, offering surrender terms, but aristocrats refused, preferring death to mixing with Bruttians. They eventually fled to Locri. 2.4 2:00.

4 715 Hiero's death led to his grandson Hieronymus, 15-year-old boy, ascending to throne. Hiero's daughters & their husbands sought power, opposing Hiero's plan to leave Syracuse free state. Despite his efforts, guardianship was concentrated in Andranodorus' hands, threatening kingdom's stability & relations with Rome. 1.6 1:20.

5 716 Hieronymus, Hiero's grandson, succeeded him & immediately showed his true nature. He wore purple & diadem, surrounded by armed guards, & was cruel & lustful. His guardians feared him, & some conspired against him. conspiracy was revealed, & Theodotus was tortured but remained silent about his co-conspirators. 2.1 1:45.

6 717 After Thraso's death, Hieronymus openly revolted against

Rome. He formed an alliance with Hannibal, who sent agents to Syracuse. When Roman envoys arrived, Hieronymus mocked them, & they warned him not to abandon their alliance lightly. Hieronymus then sent envoys to Carthage, proposing treaty to divide Sicily & claiming Italy for Carthage. 1.5 1:15.

7 718 Hieronymus was assassinated by conspirators while walking to forum. Dinomenes, royal guard, helped facilitate attack. conspirators then spread news of their victory & secured key locations. Appius Claudius, anticipating war, informed senate & moved Roman garrisons to frontier. 1.8 1:30.

8 719 Fabius addressed people, urging them to choose consuls wisely, as they would be facing Hannibal. He praised M. Aemilius Regillus but noted his religious duties. He criticized T. Otacilius' naval command, saying he failed to achieve his objectives. Fabius appealed to people to choose leaders carefully, recalling past disasters. 3.5 2:55.

9 720 T. Otacilius protested, accusing Fabius of seeking to prolong his consulship. Fabius warned him, & voting resumed, electing Fabius & Marcellus as consuls. senate assigned provinces, with Fulvius commanding in

Rome. 2 floods occurred, causing destruction & loss of life. consuls' election was seen as crucial for war effort. 1.6 1:20.

10 721 The senate met, & consuls instructed to conduct election of censors. Commands extended for former consuls & praetors, with some assigned new provinces. Many portents reported, including unusual animal behavior, unexplained fires, & strange sightings. These expiated with sacrifices & intercessions to various deities. 2.1 1:45.

11 722 The senate decided to deploy 18 legions, with consuls, praetors, & propraetors commanding various regions. 6 new legions to be raised, & fleet of 150 vessels prepared. Censors elected, & T. Otacilius sailed to Sicily with his fleet. An order was issued to recruit sailors from citizens based on their wealth. 1.5 1:15.

12 723 The Campanians, fearing Roman siege, begged Hannibal to come to Capua. He obliged, leaving Arpi & setting up camp at Tifata. He then descended to Lake Avernus, intending to attack Puteoli. Meanwhile, Fabius Maximus returned to his army & ordered Ti. Gracchus to move to Beneventum, while Q. Fabius took his place at Luceria. 1.1 :55.

13 724 Hannibal met with Tarentine nobles who offered to betray their city in his favor. He promised to march on Tarentum & approved their plans. Hannibal then attacked Puteoli, but failed to capture it. He ravaged Naples district & was invited to Nola, but Marcellus, anticipating betrayal, threw 6000 infantry & 500 cavalry into Nola to secure it. 2 1:40.

14 725 Q. Fabius attacked Casilinum, while Hanno approached Beneventum with strong force. Ti. Gracchus arrived first & encamped near Hanno's forces. He addressed his troops, mostly volunteer slaves, promising freedom if they fought bravely. He offered instant freedom to anyone who brought back an enemy's head, & threatened death for cowards. 1.9 1:35.

15 726 Gracchus led 17,000 infantry & 1,200 cavalry into battle against Hanno's forces. fight was intense, with neither side gaining advantage. Romans hindered by trying to cut off enemy heads to earn liberty. Gracchus ordered them to focus on fighting, promising liberty regardless. battle raged on, with both sides appealing to their men. 1.5 1:15.

16 727 The Romans defeated Carthaginians, killing most of their army, capturing 38 standards, & freeing 17,000 prisoners. Only 2000 Romans died. Gracchus freed 4000 volunteer slaves, who had shown cowardice, but punished them with minor penalty. soldiers returned to Beneventum, where they celebrated with feasts & hospitality. 3.3 2:45.

17 728 Hannibal shifted his camp to Nola, & consul prepared to meet him. He sent C. Claudius Nero with cavalry to attack from rear, but Nero failed to appear on time. Romans still gained advantage, killing over 2,000 Carthaginians, while losing less than 400. Nero was severely censured for his failure. 1.3 1:05.

18 729 The censors prosecuted those who planned to abandon Italy after Cannae, including praetor M. Caecilius Metellus. Over 2000 men who hadn't served for 4 years removed from tribes & disfranchised. senate sent them to Sicily as foot soldiers until enemy left Italy. 2.5 2:05.

19 730 Consul Q. Fabius besieged Casilinum, garrisoned by 2,000 Campanians & 700 of Hannibal's troops. Marcellus joined him with his army, & Campanians sought safe conduct to Capua. Marcellus occupied gate, & an indiscriminate slaughter began, resulting in capture of Casilinum & imprisonment of its defenders. 1.8 1:30.

20 731 Fabius & Marcellus won victories in Samnium & Nola, while Gracchus' cohorts defeated by Hanno in Lucania. Fabius captured several towns, killing or imprisoning 25,000 enemy soldiers. Hannibal reached Tarentum, but failed to win its loyalty, & withdrew to Salapia for winter quarters, sending Numidians & Moors on marauding expeditions. 2.4 2:00.

21 732 After Hieronymus' death, disturbance broke out among soldiers at Leontini, but they won over by promises of liberty & treasure. Theodotus & Sosis rode to Syracuse, displaying king's blood-stained robe & diadem, & summoned people to arms, bidding them assemble in Achradina. 2 1:40.

22 733 Polyaenus urged Syracusans to seek liberty through moderation, sending envoys to Andranodorus to submit to senate's authority. Andranodorus, influenced by his wife Demarata, pretended to yield, opening gates of Island & delivering speech in forum, cautioning against bloodshed & urging peace & concord. 2.9 2:25.

23 734 Andranodorus surrendered keys & treasury, & citizens celebrated. New praetors elected, including Andranodorus. Hippocrates & Epicydes, Hannibal's generals, requested an escort to leave Syracuse, which was granted. However, they lingered, spreading rumors that senate sought to bring Syracuse under Roman rule, gaining support from soldiers & deserters. 1.9 1:35.

24 735 Andranodorus, influenced by his wife & Hippocrates, planned revolution. He confided in Aristo, tragic actor, who revealed plot to praetors. Andranodorus & Themistus killed, & informer explained conspiracy to senate, revealing planned murder of citizens & seizure of Island. 1.9 1:35.

25 736 Sopater reviewed conspirators' past crimes, showing Andranodorus & Themistus as masterminds. He blamed their wives, Hiero's & Gelo's daughters, for instigating their husbands' royal ambitions. assembly demanded their deaths, & praetors had Demarata & Harmonia executed, exterminating royal bloodline. 1.6 1:20.

26 737 Heraclia, Hiero's daughter, fled to chapel with her daughters, begging executioners to spare them. She argued that they innocent & posed no threat. Despite her pleas, they dragged out & killed. Later, messenger arrived with reprieve, but it was too late, & people turned on praetors. 2.4 2:00.

27 738 To everyone's surprise, Epicydes & Hippocrates elected praetors, backed by mixed crowd of citizens, soldiers, & deserters. They secretly plotted, exploiting arrival of Roman fleet & spreading false rumors that Syracuse was being betrayed to Romans, stirring up excitement & unrest among people. 1.5 1:15.

28 739 Apollonides urged unity in speech, saying Syracuse's fate depended on it. He favored alliance with Rome, citing Hiero's friendship & risk of immediate war if they refused. His speech swayed council, & they decided to conclude peace with Rome, sending an embassy to ratify it with Marcellus. 1.5 1:15.

29 740 Hippocrates led 4,000 men to Leontini, where he began raiding Roman-allied territory. Marcellus demanded his banishment, & Epicydes joined him in Leontini, stirring up people against Syracuse &

Rome. With 4,000 men, Hippocrates continued devastating countryside, prompting Marcellus to threaten war unless he was banished from Sicily. 2.2 1:50.

30 741 Marcellus captured Leontini, & Hippocrates & Epicydes fled to Herbesus. Syracusan army, misled by false reports of massacre, refused to continue their march. praetors, Sosis & Dinomenes, attempted to betray Herbesus, but failed. Hippocrates & Epicydes surrendered to their former soldiers, 600 Cretans, who protected them. 2.1 1:45.

31 742 Hippocrates & Epicydes surrendered to Cretans, who refused to give them up. praetors tried to arrest Hippocrates, but army protested, & they retreated to Megara. Hippocrates spread false message, stirring up army against Syracusan soldiers, but he & Epicydes protected them, gaining their loyalty & using them as hostages. 2.1 1:45.

32 743 A man, bribed by Hippocrates, spread false news in Syracuse, stirring up mob. senate was convinced, & gates shut. But soldiers & people opened gates, letting in Hippocrates & Epicydes' troops. praetors fled, & Achradina was captured. next day, slaves freed, & Hippocrates & Epicydes elected praetors, ending Syracuse's brief liberty. 1.8 1:30.

33 744 The Romans, informed of situation in Syracuse, marched on city. Envoys sent, but Hippocrates & Epicydes refused to let them enter, saying government was not in their hands. Romans attacked by land & sea, targeting Hexapylon & Achradina. They hoped to breach walls & penetrate city. 1.7 1:25.

34 745 Archimedes' inventions & military engines repelled Roman attack on Syracuse. He deployed artillery, loopholes, & grappling hooks to defend city walls. Despite Romans' efforts, Archimedes' creations frustrated their attempts, leading them to abandon active operations & opt for blockade, cutting off supplies by land & sea. 2.6 2:10.

35 746 Marcellus recovered Helorum, Herbesus, & Megara, but Himilco landed in Sicily with 20,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, & twelve elephants, capturing Heraclea & Agrigentum. Hippocrates joined Himilco, & they marched against Marcellus, who was returning to Syracuse with smaller force, wary of enemy's superior numbers. 1.5 1:15.

36 747 Marcellus defeated Hippocrates, killing infantry & scattering cavalry. Himilco joined Hippocrates & camped by Anapus River, while Carthaginian fleet sailed into Syracuse's harbor. Roman legion landed at Panormus & joined Appius Claudius, causing Himilco to abandon hopes of relieving Syracuse & march away to capture Murgantia. 1.7 1:25.

37 748 Henna's citizens, led by traitors, demanded Roman commandant, L. Pinarius, hand over keys to gates. Pinarius refused, saying he couldn't betray his trust & that it was capital offense to quit his post. He suggested consulting people or sending to Consul Marcellus, but citizens threatened to take action. 1.9 1:35.

38 749 Roman commandant L. Pinarius addressed his soldiers, warning them of impending treachery from citizens of Henna, who sought to hand city over to Carthage. He urged them to be prepared to fight, saying, "Victory will fall to him who first draws sword." He planned to give signal with his toga to attack crowd. 1.8 1:30.

39 750 The Roman commandant gave signal, & soldiers attacked crowd in theater, killing many & filling city with dead bodies. Marcellus rewarded his troops with plunder & used terror to deter further betrayal. news spread, & many Sicilians defected to Carthage, outraged by massacre. 2.3 1:55.

40 751 M. Valerius, with fleet & 2,000 soldiers, relieved Apollonia from Philip's siege. Q. Naevius Crista led 2,000 men into city at night, & they surprised enemy camp, killing or capturing nearly 3,000. Philip fled, abandoning his ships & siege artillery. Valerius wintered at Oricum with his fleet. 2.8 2:20.

41 752 In Spain, Mago & Hasdrubal defeated Spanish forces, but P. Cornelius Scipio's timely arrival prevented allies from defecting. Romans encamped at Mount of Victory, where they joined by Cn. Scipio. Carthaginians attacked Illiturgis, but Cn. Scipio relieved siege, killing 12,000 & capturing 1,000 prisoners & 36 standards. 1.6 1:20.

42 753 The Romans defeated Carthaginians at Munda, killing 12,000 & capturing 3,000 prisoners & 57 standards. Cn. Scipio was wounded, but Romans continued to Auringis, where they won another battle, killing over 8,000, capturing 1,000 prisoners & 58 standards, & taking 8 elephants. Saguntum was finally recovered. 1.7 1:25.

43 754 M. Metellus, tribune, attempted to indict censors P. Furius & M. Atilius but was vetoed by his colleagues. consular elections resulted in Q. Fabius Maximus & T. Sempronius Gracchus being elected in absentia. Praetors elected included M. Atilius & 3 curule aediles. scenic games celebrated for first time. 1.3 1:05.

44 755 The provinces & armies distributed: 2 consuls against Hannibal, each with 2 legions. M. Aemilius got Luceria with 2 legions, P. Sempronius Tuditanus got Ariminum, & Cn. Fulvius got Suessula. Commands extended for M. Claudius, Lentulus, Titus Otacilius, M. Valerius, Q. Mucius, & C. Terentius. 2 legions raised in City & 20,000 men furnished by allies. 2 1:40.

45 756 Dasius Altinius of Arpi offered to betray his city to Fabius, but some advisors deemed him untrustworthy, citing his past defection to Hannibal. Fabius' father suggested imprisoning Altinius in trusted city until war's end, when his loyalty could be reassessed. Altinius was interned in Cales with his gold.2.5 2:05.

46 757 Fabius targeted Arpi, examining its fortifications & identifying weak point. He selected elite centurions & 600 soldiers, ordering them to scale wall & open gate at 4th watch. rain storm masked their approach, & they successfully entered city, sounding bugle to signal Fabius to advance. 1.6 1:20.

47 758 In Arpi, 5,000 Hannibal soldiers & 3,000 citizens fought Romans. As daylight broke, citizens recognised Romans & began conversing. They defected, fighting for Romans. 1,000 Spaniards joined Romans, & Carthaginians departed safely. Arpi was restored without bloodshed, except for one traitor. Romans captured Atrinum, taking 7,000 prisoners. 2.4 2:00.

48 759 The Scipios sent centurions to Numidian King Syphax, who was hostile to Carthage. They formed an alliance & centurion Statorius trained Syphax's infantry, teaching them Roman tactics. Syphax's infantry became formidable, & he defeated Carthaginians. Friendly relations established between Syphax & Rome, causing Numidian desertions from Carthage. 2.3 1:55.

49 760 Gala's son Masinissa, 17, led an army with Carthaginians & defeated Syphax, killing 30,000. Syphax fled to Maurusii, gathered new force, but Masinissa arrived & ended war without Carthaginian help. In Spain, Romans hired Celtiberians & sent Spanish nobles to Italy to sway Hannibal's troops. 1.4 1:10.

25 212 (541)
Fall of Syracuse
41 98.7 1:22:15 98.7

1 761 Hannibal spent summer in Sallentine territory, hoping to secure Tarentum by treachery. Meanwhile, Romans fought battles in Bruttium & Lucania, with varying success. As war dragged on, superstitions & foreign rituals spread in Rome, leading to public scandal & senate intervention. 2.4 2:00.

2 762 Several religious officials died, including chief pontiff, & new ones appointed. dictator was nominated to conduct consular elections, which resulted in election of Q. Fulvius Flaccus & Appius Claudius Pulcher. Praetors also elected. curule aediles, including P. Cornelius Scipio (later known as Africanus), hosted Roman Games on grand scale. 1.5 1:15.

3 763 Q. Fulvius Flaccus & Appius Claudius became consuls, with praetors assigned to various provinces. Legions decreed for each consul, & commands extended in Lucania, Gaul, Sicily, & Spain. 2 new legions raised, bringing total to 23. Contractor M. Postumius Pyrgensis' fraud was exposed, & tribunes demanded fine of 200,000 ases. 3 2:30.

4 764 The senate condemned Postumius Pyrgensis' violent disruption of plebeian Assembly, calling it an offense against republic. Tribunes dropped fine proposal & indicted him for high treason. He failed to appear in court & was deemed an exile, his goods sold, & himself outlawed. Others involved faced similar charges & punishment. 1.8 1:30.

5 765 The election for chief pontiff was held, & P. Licinius Crassus won. consuls struggled to levy troops due to shortage of eligible men. senate ordered 2 commissions to inspect villages within & outside 50 miles radius of Rome, recruiting all able-bodied men, including those below military age. 1.6 1:20.

6 766 A deputation from cavalry & legionaries spoke to M. Marcellus, pleading their case. "Over 50,000 men fell at Cannae, yet we survivors are exiled, denied chance to redeem ourselves. We ask for labours & dangers, to prove our mettle & courage. Let us fight & win our freedom." 4.2 3:30.

7 767 The senate refused to grant Cannae survivors' request, citing desertion. Marcellus would act as he thought best, but they couldn't receive discharge, rewards, or return to Italy while enemy remained. Strange storms & omens occurred, prompting religious services. Phileas, Tarentine envoy, was involved in plot, but hostages he helped escape caught & punished. 2.3 1:55.

8 768 13 young Tarentine nobles, led by Nico & Philemenus, conspired against

Rome. They met with Hannibal, who promised to preserve Tarentum's freedom & laws if they betrayed city. Philemenus regularly left & returned to city at night, pretending to go hunting, & brought back gifts for Roman garrison. 1.9 1:35.

9 769 Hannibal marched on Tarentum with 10,000 troops, sending Numidian cavalry ahead to create diversion. Philemenus, conspirator, entered city with game, admitting armed men. Nico attacked sleeping sentinels, opening gate for Hannibal's infantry. cavalry remained outside, ready to attack. 2.8 2:20.

10 770 Chaos erupted in Tarentum as Hannibal's troops entered. Romans & Tarentines clashed, each unsure of other's intentions. At dawn, Romans fled to citadel, & Hannibal addressed Tarentines, promising kindness & urging them to mark their homes to avoid plunder. troops then looted Roman houses, gaining significant spoils. 1.6 1:20.

11 771 Hannibal attacked citadel, but its defenses too strong. He decided to cut off communication by building earthworks, hoping Romans would try to stop him. They did, but defeated. earthworks completed, & Hannibal transported ships by land to blockade citadel by sea. 3.9 3:15.

12 772 Marcius, seer, predicted disaster of Cannae & future events. His prophecies recognized as true & led to institution of Apollinarian Games to ensure victory. Games celebrated with sacrifices, processions, & feasting, & people wore garlands & offered intercessions. 2.6 2:10.

13 773 Hanno, sent by Hannibal, brought corn to Capua, avoiding Roman consuls in Samnium. Campanians failed to provide adequate transport, & Hanno scolded them. Fulvius, Roman consul, learned of situation & marched on Hanno's camp, attacking at dawn. Carthaginians defended their elevated position, repelling Romans. 2.3 1:55.

14 774 Roman consul Fulvius attacked Hanno's camp, but heavy losses prompted retreat. However, soldiers refused to back down, & Paelignian cohort led successful charge. Over 10,000 enemies killed, 7,000 captured, & immense plunder seized. consuls sold & distributed spoils, rewarding key contributors like Accaus & Pedanius. 2.4 2:00.

15 775 Hannibal sent 2,000 cavalry to aid Capua, while Romans focused on Tarentum's citadel. Thurii defected to Hannibal, & M. Atinius' garrison was defeated. Carthaginians entered city, & Atinius was sent to safety. consuls marched on Capua, destroying crops & preparing to attack city. 3.9 3:15.

16 776 Gracchus received ominous portents before being betrayed & ambushed by Lucanian leader Flavus, who sought to gain favor with Carthaginians. Despite being surrounded, Gracchus & his men fought bravely, but Gracchus was killed & his body sent to Hannibal. He died in Lucania at "Old Fields." 3.8 3:10.

17 777 Gracchus' death location is disputed, with some claiming he was killed near Beneventum's river Calor while bathing, & others saying he was surrounded by Numidians half mile from camp. Funeral accounts also vary, with some saying his men buried him in camp, while others believe Hannibal honored him with funeral pyre & ceremony. 1.3 1:05.

18 778 The consuls invaded Capua's territory, but sudden sortie by townsmen & Mago's troops routed them, killing over 1,500 Romans. Later, T. Quinctius Crispinus dueled with his former friend Badius, Capuan, & emerged victorious, earning praise & gifts from consuls & soldiers. 2.7 2:15.

19 779 Hannibal encamped near Capua, but battle was inconclusive. consuls divided their forces, & Hannibal pursued Appius, who led him on circuitous route back to Capua. Meanwhile, M. Centenius Paenula led 5,000 men into Lucania, where Hannibal's veterans easily defeated them, killing nearly all, with only 1,000 escaping. 2.6 2:10.

20 780 The consuls prepared to besiege Capua, storing corn at Casilinum & building fort at Vulturnum. They also garrisoned Puteoli & stocked corn from Sardinia & Etruria. Meanwhile, Hannibal targeted Apulia, exploiting laxity of Cn. Fulvius' army, which had grown complacent after initial successes. 1.2 1:00.

21 781 Hannibal's army approached Fulvius' legions near Heraclea. Romans, eager for battle, ignored their commander's orders. Hannibal disposed 3,000 light infantry & 2,000 cavalry strategically. Romans formed haphazard line, which Hannibal easily broke, routing army. Of 12,000 men, only 2,000 escaped, & camp was taken. 1.8 1:30.

22 782 Rome received news of defeats with grief & alarm, but senate remained calm, knowing consuls successful. They instructed consuls to gather remaining troops & prevent surrender. Publius Cornelius was tasked with finding deserted volunteer slaves & raising fresh troops. investment of Capua began. 2.4 2:00.

23 783 Marcellus considered attacking Agrigentum or continuing siege of Syracuse. latter was impossible to take by assault or famine, but he persisted. Syrian nobles in exile helped negotiate surrender, but Epicydes discovered & executed conspirators. Later, Roman observed wall's vulnerability, & Marcellus planned nocturnal scaling attack. 3 2:30.

24 784 Roman troops scaled Syracuse's walls, reaching Hexapylon without resistance. postern gate was breached, & signal was given. Panic spread, & citizens fled or took up arms. Marcellus entered city, & Epicydes retreated to Achradina, fearing treachery. Marcellus sent Syracusans to negotiate surrender, hoping to spare city. 2.4 2:00.

25 785 Marcellus' troops entered Syracuse, sparing citizens. Philodemus, commander of Euryalus, delayed surrender, hoping for reinforcements. Marcellus established camp, allowing soldiers to plunder but not harm citizens. Philodemus eventually surrendered, & Bomilcar escaped with 35 ships, later returning with 100 ships & receiving gifts from Epicydes. 2.3 1:55.

26 786 Marcellus besieged Achradina, but Hippocrates & Himilco's arrival led to Roman defeat. Both sides suffered from pestilence, with Carthaginian camp hardest hit. Sicilians deserted, & Carthaginians, including Hippocrates & Himilco, perished. Marcellus moved his men to city, where they recovered from sickness. 2.4 2:00.

27 787 Bomilcar's fleet of 130 warships & 700 transports approached Syracuse, but was delayed by winds. Epicydes persuaded him to engage Romans in sea fight. fleets faced each other off Pachinus, but Bomilcar sailed for Tarentum, sending transports back to Africa. Epicydes went to Agrigentum, abandoning Syracuse. 2.1 1:45.

28 788 Sicilian envoys negotiated surrender with Marcellus, seeking liberty & laws for Sicilians. They persuaded those inside city to join them, & together they attacked & killed Epicydes' officers. envoys then addressed citizens, explaining that Romans sought to free Syracuse from tyranny, not destroy it. 1.9 1:35.

29 789 The Syracusans elected magistrates & sent envoys to Marcellus, surrendering their city & arms. They appealed to Marcellus' glory, reminding him of their past friendship & Hiero's loyalty. But mercenaries, fearing betrayal, revolted, killing magistrates & citizens, & electing new leaders, before eventually realizing their error. 2 1:40.

30 790 Moericus, Spanish commander in Achradina, was persuaded by Roman soldier to defect. He secretly negotiated with Marcellus & agreed to admit Roman troops through gate near fountain of Arethusa. Romans captured Achradina & Nasos, & Marcellus ordered retreat to secure royal treasure. 2.3 1:55.

31 791 Marcellus granted Syracusans' request for mercy, citing their eventual courage & good services of Hiero. He captured city, allowing his soldiers to plunder Achradina, but spared refugees' homes. Archimedes was killed in chaos, & Marcellus honored his memory & protected his relations. 2.3 1:55.

32 792 Roman commanders in Spain united their forces, deciding to end war. They raised 20,000 Celtiberians & divided their army: P. Cornelius led two-thirds against Mago & Hasdrubal, while Cn. Cornelius led remaining third, including 20,000 Celtiberians, against Barcine Hasdrubal. 1.3 1:05.

33 793 Hasdrubal bribed Celtiberian chieftains to withdraw their 20,000 troops from Roman army. Celtiberians, eager for rest & home, easily agreed. Scipio, outnumbered & unable to detain them, retreated to avoid battle on open ground with pursuing enemy. 1.6 1:20.

34 794 Masinissa's Numidian horse attacked Scipio's camp, causing constant alarm. Indebilis approached with 7,500 Suessetanians, prompting Scipio to make night march to intercept him. Romans fought in disorder, struggling against both Indebilis' infantry & Masinissa's cavalry. Scipio fell in battle, & Romans fled in disarray. 2.2 1:50.

35 795 After their victory, Carthaginian generals joined Hasdrubal, expecting to end war. Meanwhile, Roman general, suspecting disaster, retreated overnight to avoid being caught between enemy armies. Numidians caught up with them, making repeated charges, but Scipio urged his men to fight on & keep moving. 1.4 1:10.

36 796 Scipio's men formed defensive circle on hill, using saddles & baggage as makeshift rampart. Carthaginians mocked but struggled to breach barrier. Eventually, they forced their way in, slaughtering defenders. Scipio was killed, either in initial attack or after fleeing to tower that was set ablaze. 2.7 2:15.

37 797 Lucius Marcius, Roman knight, rallied fugitive soldiers & formed respectable army. He was unanimously elected commander & prepared for battle. Despite initial despair, soldiers rallied & defeated Carthaginians. Marcius then planned bold attack on Hasdrubal's camp, seeking to retrieve Roman fortunes. 3.3 2:45.

38 798 Lucius Marcius rallied his troops, urging them to avenge their fallen commanders & defend

Rome. He planned bold nighttime attack on Hasdrubal's camp, exploiting enemy's complacency. soldiers delighted with plan & prepared for battle, eager to strike back & regain their honor. 4.2 3:30.

39 799 Lucius Marcius led surprise attack on Hasdrubal's camp, killing 37,000 enemy soldiers & capturing 1,830, according to Claudius. Valerius Antias reported 7,000 killed in Mago's camp & 10,000 killed & 4,380 captured in other battle. Piso stated 5,000 killed in Mago's ambush. Marcius' victory was legendary. 2.7 2:15.

40 800 Marcellus settled Sicily's affairs with justice & integrity, gaining reputation for

Rome. He removed Syracuse's ornaments, starting Rome's admiration for Greek art. Deputations from Sicilian communities visited him, receiving varying treatment. Meanwhile, Muttines, skilled general, led Carthaginian forces, causing terror & confusion among Romans. 2.6 2:10.

41 801 Marcellus, indignant at idea of retreating, formed his lines & prepared for battle. Numidians, sympathetic to mutineers, defected & enemy fled in alarm. Romans won easily, killing several thousand & capturing 8 elephants. Marcellus returned to Syracuse, & senate decreed election of new magistrates. 1.9 1:35.

26 211 (542)
Fate of Capua
51 116.4 1:37 116.4

1 802 The new consuls, Fulvius & Galba, discussed war strategy & province distribution. Fulvius & Claudius continued siege of Capua, while Marcellus finished war in Sicily. Sulpicius took over Sicily's legions, & Cornelius received Sardinia's legions. disgraced soldiers forbidden to winter in towns. Twenty-five legions fought on land & sea. 1.8 1:30.

2 803 C. Sempronius Blaesus accused Cn. Fulvius of demoralizing his army through vice & betraying them in Apulia. He contrasted Fulvius with Tiberius Sempronius, who had disciplined his army & achieved victories. Blaesus criticized Fulvius' cowardice & unequal treatment of rich & poor in Rome. 3.3 2:45.

3 804 Fulvius blamed his men for defeat, claiming they panicked & fled. Witnesses testified that praetor led flight, & people demanded capital charge. Fulvius appealed to tribunes & sought his brother's help, but was denied. He went into exile in Tarquinii, & plebs confirmed his status as exile. 2.1 1:45.

4 805 The Romans besieged Capua, using clever tactic to overcome their cavalry disadvantage. Selected soldiers, called velites, trained to leap from horses & attack with javelins, creating novel & effective infantry-cavalry force. This strategy, attributed to centurion Q. Navius, gave Romans superiority in cavalry & led to Capua's defeat. 1.6 1:20.

5 806 Hannibal approached Capua with selected force, while Romans divided their army to face both him & Capuan sortie. battle was intense, with Romans eventually gaining upper hand. Q. Navius, centurion, led charge against Spanish cohort, inspiring his men to follow & secure Roman victory. 3 2:30.

6 807 The Romans repelled Hannibal's attack on Capua, killing many elephants & soldiers. Appius Claudius was wounded, & Hannibal retreated. Romans didn't pursue, considering they had made their point. Accounts vary, but it was last battle before Capua's surrender. Seppius Loesius, "medix tuticus", took office amidst famine & despair. 2.7 2:15.

7 808 Hannibal abandoned his attempt to relieve Capua & considered marching on Rome, hoping to seize part of city & force consuls to divert their attention from Capua. He sent message to Capua, urging them to hold on, & then crossed Volturnus River with his army. 1.6 1:20.

8 809 Fulvius Flaccus informed senate of Hannibal's plan to march on

Rome. senate debated, with some advocating recalling all generals & armies, while Fabius Maximus believed Hannibal's goal was to raise siege of Capua, not capture

Rome. middle course was adopted, sending despatch to Capua to determine best course of action. 1.8 1:30.

9 810 Hannibal marched towards Rome, destroying territories along way. Fulvius followed, delayed by lack of boats & timber. Rome was in state of panic, with matrons praying in temples & senators offering their services. Troops posted throughout City, & Fulvius was granted consular powers. 2.2 1:50.

10 811 Fulvius Flaccus entered Rome with his army, encamping between Colline & Esquiline Gates. Hannibal advanced with 2,000 cavalry, inspecting walls. Flaccus sent cavalry to drive him back, & 1,200 Numidian deserters sent to fight in Esquiliae. Panic ensued, but cavalry action was successful. 1.9 1:35.

11 812 Hannibal & Flaccus prepared for battle, but hailstorm intervened 2 times. Hannibal withdrew from Rome, retreating 6 miles to river Tutia. He then plundered temple of Feronia, celebrated for its wealth, & marched to Amiternum & eventually returned to Campania, covering distance of 2 days from Eretum to Rome. 2.2 1:50.

12 813 The Romans pressed siege of Capua, while Hannibal abandoned it to attack Regium. Capuans lost hope, & despite an amnesty offer, none defected to Romans. Punic garrison blamed Hannibal for surrendering Capua. despatch from garrison was intercepted, revealing their plan to attack Romans if Hannibal returned. Over 70 Numidian deserters caught, tortured, & sent back to Capua, breaking city's spirit. 2.9 2:25.

13 814 Vibius Virrius addressed senate, reminding them of their past actions against Rome & inevitability of harsh punishment if they surrendered. He urged them to choose noble death instead, & offered banquet at his house where they could drink fatal draught & avoid torture & humiliation. 3.7 3:05.

14 815 Vibius Virrius' speech was met with approval, but many lacked courage to act. 27 senators joined him for final banquet, where they drank poisoned cup. They died before Romans entered Capua, where they seized weapons, arrested Punic garrison, & confiscated 2072 pounds of gold & 31,200 pounds of silver. 1.4 1:10.

15 816 Fulvius & Claudius disagreed on punishing Capua's senators. Fulvius executed 25 at Teanum & 28 at Cales, despite decree from Roman senate to leave their fate to be decided in

Rome. Capuan, Taurea Vibellius, asked to be executed, but was refused. He then took his own life with hidden sword. 2.6 2:10.

16 817 Fulvius executed Capuan senators, despite senate decree. Some accounts say Claudius died before surrender, & Taurea was executed without speaking. Fulvius spared Capua's territory for its productivity, but city was depopulated, lost its government, & was administered by Roman praetor, showcasing Rome's lenity & power. 2.5 2:05.

17 818 Nero's army of 6,000 infantry & 300 cavalry, plus allied forces, landed at Tarraco & marched to Ebro. Hasdrubal, encamped at Lapides Atri, negotiated withdrawal, but secretly sent troops away each night. After several days, he escaped with his cavalry & elephants, leaving Nero to pursue him. 2.6 2:10.

18 819 After defeat of 2 Scipios in Spain, Romans sought new commander. Despite initial reluctance, Publius Cornelius Scipio, son of one of fallen generals, announced his candidacy at just 24 years old. He was unanimously elected, but concerns about his youth & family misfortunes lingered. 1.8 1:30.

19 820 Scipio addressed voters, dispelling concerns about his youth & command. He inspired hope & confidence with his words & actions, which some attributed to divine inspiration. He was given force of 10,000 infantry & 1000 cavalry, & set sail for Emporiae with fleet of 30 quinqueremes, later proceeding to Tarraco. 2.4 2:00.

20 821 Scipio visited friendly tribes & inspected army winter quarters, praising their resilience. He treated Marcius with honor, showing no fear of overshadowing his own reputation. Carthaginian armies withdrew to their winter quarters, while Carthaginian fleet blockaded Tarentum, causing scarcity among population but not Roman garrison. 1.7 1:25.

21 822 M. Marcellus returned to Rome from Sicily, requesting triumph, but was denied due to ongoing war. He was granted an ovation, celebrating with procession featuring 8 elephants, spoils, & artworks. Sosis & Moericus received citizenship & 500 jugera of land. Carthaginian fleet landed 8000 infantry & 3000 Numidian horse, causing revolt & destruction. M. Cornelius calmed Roman army & reduced revolted cities to submission. 3 2:30.

22 823 T. Manlius Torquatus was elected consul, but asked Veturian century of juniors to revote, citing his poor eyesight & war with Hannibal. They initially refused, but eventually consulted with seniors & chose M. Marcellus Claudius & M. Valerius Laevinus as consuls instead. 2.5 2:05.

23 824 Praetors elected: P. Manlius Vulso, L. Manlius Acidinus, C. Laetorius, & L. Cincius Alimentus. T. Otacilius died in Sicily. Games of Apollo declared annual. Portents: lightning struck statue of Victory, walls & gates struck in Anagnia & Fregellae, blood flowed in Subertum, stones fell in Eretium, & mule foaled in Reate. 1.4 1:10.

24 825 M. Valerius Laevinus met with Aetolian leaders, promising Roman friendship & assistance against Philip & Macedon. Aetolians agreed, hoping to gain control of Acarnania. Terms written, including clause for potential alliances with Eleans, Lacedaemonians, Attalus, Pleuratus, & Scerdilaedus. Laevinus attacked Zacynthus, capturing city, & handed Oeniadae & Nasos to Aetolians. 2.7 2:15.

25 826 Philip, hearing of Aetolians' defection, invaded Illyria & Pelagonia, capturing Sintia. He then marched into Thessaly, leaving Perseus to defend pass. Aetolians, led by Scopas, prepared to invade Acarnania. Acarnanians, determined to fight, took an oath & prepared for battle, but Philip's approach forced Aetolians to withdraw. 2.3 1:55.

26 827 Laevinus attacked Anticyra, which surrendered to Aetolians. He was made consul & succeeded by P. Sulpicius. M. Marcellus, new consul, addressed senate, promising not to propose any measures until his colleague arrived. He criticized M. Cornelius for spreading false information about Sicily & himself. 2.2 1:50.

27 828 A fire broke out in Forum, burning 7 shops & offices. 13 slaves saved Temple of Vesta. senate offered reward for information leading to arrest of incendiaries. slave named Manus revealed that his masters, 5 nobles, & their slaves responsible. They executed, & Manus was rewarded with liberty & 20,000 ases. 2.6 2:10.

28 829 The senate allocated commands: one consul to fight Hannibal in Italy, other to command fleet & administer Sicily. 2 legions sent to Gaul, & army in Etruria was reduced to one strong legion (5000 infantry, 300 cavalry). army of allies was reduced to 7000 infantry & 300 cavalry. 1.9 1:35.

29 830 The Sicilians horrified when Marcellus was assigned to Sicily, fearing revenge for their complaints against him. They appealed to senators, warning of devastation if Marcellus returned. senate suggested rearranging provinces, & Marcellus offered to exchange with Laevinus, who accepted, swapping commands without formal decree. 2.1 1:45.

30 831 The Sicilians addressed senate, recalling their loyalty to Rome & blaming Marcellus for tyranny & destruction in Syracuse. They begged for restitution of their losses, citing Marcellus' brutality & plundering. Marcellus demanded to respond in their presence, deflecting responsibility & comparing himself to Fabius, conqueror of Capua. 2.1 1:45.

31 832 Marcellus defended his actions in Syracuse, citing city's treachery & his own attempts at peaceful settlement. He justified his plundering & violence as lawful spoils of war, satisfying his duty as conqueror. He concluded by leaving senate to discuss matter freely, proceeding to Capitol to enrol troops. 2.3 1:55.

32 833 The senate debated Sicilians' petition, with some, like T. Manlius Torquatus, arguing that Marcellus should have spared Syracuse, while others supported his actions. decree confirmed Marcellus' acts & tasked Laevinus with protecting Syracusan property. Sicilians apologized to Marcellus, who promised to protect them & their city. 1.8 1:30.

33 834 The Capuans appealed for mercy, acknowledging their guilt but citing their punishment so far. M. Atilius Regulus advised senate to seek permission from Assembly to decide their fate, as they Roman citizens. tribune proposed resolution, which was passed, granting senate authority to determine Capuans' fate. 2.7 2:15.

34 835 The senate decreed: Oppia & Cluvia freed & their property restored. Some Capuans sold into slavery, others had their property confiscated or chained. populations of Capua & surrounding areas retained their liberty but couldn't become Roman citizens. They relocated & restricted from owning land or buildings near sea. 2 1:40.

35 836 The consuls' order sparked outrage among plebeians, who felt drained by war taxes & losses. crowd protested, & consuls gave them 3 days to reconsider. senate acknowledged their concerns but concluded that individual citizens must bear burden to maintain fleet & national security. 1.8 1:30.

36 837 Consul Laevinus proposed solution to financial crisis: senators should contribute their wealth voluntarily, setting an example for equestrian order & plebeians to follow. His suggestion was well-received, & senators eagerly brought their gold, silver, & bronze to treasury. equestrian order & plebeians showed equal zeal, & full complement of rowers was made up without formal order or compulsion. 2.1 1:45.

37 838 The war's outcome hung in balance, with both Romans & Carthaginians experiencing mixed fortunes. Roman defeats in Spain & loss of Tarentum offset by victories in Sicily & bravery of Tarentum citadel's garrison. Carthaginians' capture of Tarentum was countered by their failed siege of Rome & Roman army's march into Spain. Hope & fear seesawed, leaving both sides uncertain about war's ultimate outcome. 1.3 1:05.

38 839 Hannibal faced growing anxiety as Italian cities defected after Capua's fall. He struggled to balance garrisoning cities without weakening his army. His plundering of undefended cities sparked horror. Meanwhile, Blattius & Dasius plotted to surrender Salapia to Rome, but Hannibal initially dismissed threat. Blattius eventually succeeded, surrendering city & its 5,000 Numidian cavalry, dealing significant blow to Hannibal's cavalry superiority. 2.3 1:55.

39 840 Roman commander D. Quinctius' fleet of 20 vessels clashed with Tarentine fleet of 20 ships. Romans fought determinedly, but Quinctius was killed, & his ship captured. Roman fleet fled, with some ships sunk or seized. Only few supply transports escaped. Meanwhile, Livius' forces defeated Tarentine foraging party, killing many & driving rest into city. 3.5 2:55.

40 841 Laevinus settled Syracuse's affairs, then marched to Agrigentum, where Muttines & his Numidians defected to

Rome. city fell, & Hanno fled to Africa. Laevinus executed Agrigentum's leaders, sold population, & sent money to

Rome. 20 cities surrendered, 6 taken by storm, & 40 surrendered voluntarily. 3.1 2:35.

41 842 Scipio addressed his troops, thanking them for their loyalty & courage. He encouraged them to cross Ebro River & shift seat of war, despite recent defeats. He referenced Roman history, highlighting their ability to overcome adversity. Scipio expressed confidence in their success, citing divine signs & divisions among their Carthaginian enemies. 4.7 3:55.

42 843 Scipio crossed Ebro with 25,000 infantry & 2,500 cavalry, leaving Silanus in charge of northern territory. He marched on New Carthage, strategic city with war stores, arms, & hostages. After 7-day march, Roman army & Laelius' fleet arrived simultaneously, with camp established on city's north side. 1.8 1:30.

43 844 Scipio addressed his soldiers, explaining that capturing New Carthage would secure all of Spain. He highlighted city's importance, housing hostages, war chests, artillery, & strategic harbor. men shouted their readiness, & Scipio ordered full-strength attack by land & sea. 1.8 1:30.

44 845 Mago deployed 2,000 townsmen against Roman camp, 500 in citadel, & 500 in higher city. Romans retreated, then advanced with reinforcements, putting enemy to flight. Scipio, from Mercury's Hill, saw undefended walls & ordered full attack, using scaling ladders & shields to protect his men. 1.7 1:25.

45 846 The Carthaginians defended walls with missiles, but Romans' ladders too short or broke under weight. Scipio ordered new attack, using fishermen's knowledge to cross shallow lagoon at low tide & approach walls on foot, attributing favorable conditions to divine intervention. 1.9 1:35.

46 847 The Romans attacking land side struggled, but 500 who crossed lake entered city unopposed. They captured gate & walls, inflicting heavy slaughter. Scipio's troops marched to forum, then divided to attack hill & citadel. Both fell, & city was plundered. 1.8 1:30.

47 848 Scipio captured 10,000 freemen, freeing 2,000 artisans & assigning them to public service. He also took 120 large catapults, 281 smaller ones, 23 heavy ballistae, & 52 lighter ones. Additionally, he seized 287 golden bowls, 18,300 pounds of silver, & 63 transports with various cargoes. 1.2 1:00.

48 849 Scipio praised his troops for capturing New Carthage, then addressed dispute between Q. Tiberilius & Sextus Digitius over who first scaled wall. To avoid mutiny, Scipio appointed 3 arbitrators, who found both men deserving of mural crown. Scipio honored both & rewarded others for their bravery. 2.8 2:20.

49 850 Scipio addressed 300-3724 Spanish hostages, reassuring them of kind treatment. Discrepancies in numbers & commanders exist among sources, ranging from 10,000 to 25,000 prisoners & 2000 to 10,000 Carthaginian soldiers. noblewoman, wife of Mandonius, begged Scipio to ensure women's safety. He promised to protect their virtue & modesty, entrusting them to reliable guardian. Scipio prioritized kindness over fear, seeking alliances over servitude. He ascertained hostages' states of origin & dispatched messengers to their homes, restoring some to their families & entrusting others to C. Flaminius, quaestor. 2.5 2:05.

50 851 Scipio returned captured maiden to her betrothed, Aluccius, with her honor intact. He addressed Aluccius, "I stipulate for this one reward - that you will be friend to Rome." young man was overjoyed & brought 1,400 mounted men to Scipio's camp, praising his generosity & goodness. 2.4 2:00.

51 852 Scipio spent days in New Carthage, exercising his forces & overseeing repairs. He then departed for Tarraco, meeting delegations along way. Carthaginian generals downplayed city's fall, claiming it was minor victory, but they knew their strength was weakened. Scipio's victory drew allies from across Spain. 2.2 1:50.

27 210 - 9 (543 - 4) 1
Scipio in Spain
51 112.3 1:33:35 112.3

1 853 In Italy, Marcellus recovered Salapia & gained 2 Samnite towns, killing 3,000 of Hannibal's troops. However, Fulvius was defeated near Herdonea, losing 7,000-13,000 men, including himself & 11 tribunes. Hannibal took camp & spoil, transported Herdonea's population, & burned city. 2.4 2:00.

2 854 Marcellus wasn't disturbed by defeat at Herdonea. He marched to Numistro, offered battle to Hannibal, & fought fiercely until nightfall. next day, Hannibal fled to Apulia. Marcellus followed, leaving wounded behind. Skirmishes ensued at Venusia, with Romans having advantage. 1.9 1:35.

3 855 At Capua, Flaccus sold citizens' property & farmed revenues. plot to burn Fulvius' military huts was discovered, & 170 Capuans arrested, tortured, & executed. Informers received freedom & 10,000 ases. Nuceria & Acerrae's people relocated, & commissioners purchased corn in Etruria for Tarentum's citadel. 1.5 1:15.

4 856 The senate recalled Valerius from Sicily for consular elections, despite Marcellus' success against Hannibal. King Syphax's envoys offered friendship & received gifts & delegation. Envoys sent to Alexandria & African kings. Portents reported, & pontiffs decreed sacrifices & intercessions to expiate them. 2.4 2:00.

5 857 M. Valerius returned to Rome from Sicily, reported his successes, & was granted honors. He then sailed to Africa, raided coast, & gathered intel on Carthage's plans. senate ordered him to return to Sicily & nominate Dictator, but he refused, leading to Q. Fulvius being nominated instead. 3.2 2:40.

6 858 Q. Fulvius, Dictator, fixed elections date, but they delayed due to dispute with tribunes. He cited precedents, including Q. Fabius Maximus' re-election. senate intervened, & elections proceeded. Q. Fabius was elected consul for 5th time, & Q. Fulvius for 4th time. Four praetors also elected. 3.1 2:35.

7 859 C. Laelius returned to Rome, reporting Carthage's capture & Hasdrubal's threatened march into Italy. senate decreed thanksgiving & ordered Laelius to return to Spain. new consuls, Q. Fabius & Q. Fulvius, assigned to Italy, with Fabius targeting Tarentum & Fulvius operating in Lucania & Bruttium. 2.5 2:05.

8 860 488 26 BC: Controversy over election of Curio Maximus. Plebeian C. Mamilius Atellus wins, despite patrician opposition. P. Licinius forces C. Valerius Flaccus to become Flamen of Jupiter. Flaccus later takes his seat in senate, reviving custom thought to be obsolete. Legions are raised & deployed to Etruria, Sicily, & Rome. 3.1 2:35.

9 861 Latin & allied communities protest against levies & war-taxes, threatening to refuse support to

Rome. Twelve colonies declare they cannot furnish men or money. Consuls rebuke them, emphasizing their duty to Rome, but colonies remain resolute, causing consternation in senate. 2.5 2:05.

10 862 Consuls reassure senate, citing loyalty of 18 colonies. Delegates pledge soldiers & resources. Senate praises them, & consuls introduce them to Assembly, lauding their services. Colonies thanked: Signia, Norba, Saticula, Fregellae, & others. Senate ignores disloyal colonies, using silence as rebuke. "Vicesimary gold" is distributed for war efforts. 2.2 1:50.

11 863 Portents are expiated through sacrifices. Praetor C. Hostilius vows to celebrate Games of Apollo. Censors M. Cornelius Cethegus & P. Sempronius Tuditanus are elected. Sempronius selects Q. Fabius Maximus as leader of senate, & revision of senatorial roll begins, resulting in 8 removals, including M. Caecilius Metellus. 2.6 2:10.

12 864 Fabius orders commandant in Regium to lead 8,000 men into Bruttium, attack Caulonia, & lay waste country. Marcellus confronts Hannibal at Canusium, & pitched battle ensues with heavy losses on both sides. Despite initial success, Roman right wing gives way, & army is routed, losing 2,700 men & 6 standards. 2.8 2:20.

13 865 Marcellus rebukes his men, shaming them for their panic & defeat. He pardons them but orders cohorts that lost standards to receive reduced rations & humiliates responsible centurions. next day, he leads them into battle, placing guilty units at front, urging them to fight & conquer. 2.5 2:05.

14 866 Hannibal & Marcellus engage in fierce battle. Romans, determined to redeem themselves, fight with intensity. After long struggle, Hannibal's elephants are repelled, & Carthaginians are routed. 8,000 men & 5 elephants are killed, while Romans suffer 1,700 & 1,300 allied casualties. 2.3 1:55.

15 867 Fulvius accepts surrender of Hirpini, Lucani, & Vulcientes. Fabius captures Manduria, taking 3,000 prisoners & plunder. He besieges Tarentum, using ships to attack walls. love affair between Bruttian officer & local woman leads to betrayal, & Fabius captures city, entering with his troops at sunrise. 3.4 2:50.

16 868 The Romans defeat Tarentines, killing 30,000 slaves & capturing silver, gold, & art. Fabius shows restraint, leaving statues for Tarentines. Hannibal receives surrender of Caulo's force & marches to relieve Tarentum, but it falls. He sends letter to Fabius, offering to surrender Metapontum, but it's trap. 2.6 2:10.

17 869 Scipio wins over Spanish tribes, including Edesco, Indibilis, & Mandonius, who defect from Hasdrubal's camp. Scipio's army grows, & he prepares for battle. Indibilis & Mandonius address Scipio, explaining their reasons for defecting & pledging their loyalty. Scipio accepts their alliance & restores their families, concluding treaty & welcoming them into Roman camp. 2.9 2:25.

18 870 Hasdrubal flees with his war-chest, sending elephants ahead. Scipio takes enemy camp, capturing 10,000 infantry & 2,000 cavalry. He releases Spanish prisoners & sells Africans. Spaniards hail him as "King", but Scipio prefers "Imperator", saying title "King" is insupportable to Roman ears. .9 :45.

19 871 Scipio distributes presents to Spanish leaders & offers Indibilis 300 horses. young Numidian prince, Massiva, is brought to Scipio. He tells Scipio he was orphaned & raised by his grandfather, King Gala. Scipio sends Massiva back to his uncle Masinissa with gifts: gold ring, tunic, cloak, & horse, plus cavalry escort. 1.1 :55.

20 872 Scipio's council decides against pursuing Hasdrubal, opting to secure Spanish tribes instead. Hasdrubal, Mago, & Hasdrubal Gisgo meet, deciding to move war to Italy, remove Spanish soldiers, & recruit mercenaries. They assign tasks: Hasdrubal to Italy, Mago to Balearics, Hasdrubal Gisgo to Lusitania, & Masinissa to Western Spain with 3,000 horse. 2.5 2:05.

21 873 Marcellus defends himself against accusations, is re-elected consul, & is sent to Etruria to quell rebellion. Etruscans stand down, & Marcellus returns to

Rome. Roman Games & Plebeian Games are held, & new aediles are elected, including Servilius, whose father's fate is disputed. 1.7 1:25.

22 874 M. Marcellus & T. Quinctius Crispinus become consuls, with Italy as their province. 5 armies are at their disposal. Other assignments: P. Licinius Varus (city jurisdiction), P. Licinius Crassus (alien jurisdiction), Sextus Julius Caesar (Sicily), Q. Claudius (Tarentum), Q. Fulvius Flaccus (Capua), & others. 21 legions are under arms. 2.4 2:00.

23 875 Portents & omens delay consuls' departure. Temples, monuments, & walls are struck by lightning. Bees swarm in forum, vulture enters temple, & lake runs with blood. Special intercessions are held, & Games of Apollo are established on July 5th to appease gods. 1.4 1:10.

24 876 C. Hostilius is instructed to take hostages from Arretium's townspeople. He orders his legion to enter city, & demands hostages from senators, giving them 48 hours to comply. Some escape, but 120 children are handed over to C. Terentius to be taken to Rome. 1.7 1:25.

25 877 Senate debates Tarentum's fate, deciding to garrison town & confine inhabitants. M. Livius' conduct is also debated, with some seeking censure & others reward. Fabius supports middle course, noting Livius' efforts led to Tarentum's recapture. Consuls Crispinus & Marcellus join forces in Apulia, eager to engage Hannibal. 2.2 1:50.

26 878 Hannibal, wary of facing both consuls, employs ambush tactics. Romans plan to resume siege of Locri, but Hannibal's forces intercept & defeat them, killing 2000 & capturing 1500. Marcellus & Crispinus, with 220 horsemen, explore wooded hill, despite ominous signs from Marcellus' sacrifice. 2 1:40.

27 879 Marcellus, eager to engage Hannibal, leads 220 horsemen to reconnoiter hill. They are ambushed by Numidians, & despite fierce fighting, Romans flee. Marcellus is killed, Crispinus & son wounded. Of 220, 43 are killed, 18 captured, & 5 lictors taken prisoner. Marcellus' death is widely lamented. 2.4 2:00.

28 880 Hannibal, after Marcellus' death, tries to deceive Crispinus with fake letter. Salapia sees through ruse & prepares for an attack. Hannibal's deserters are let into city, but portcullis is dropped, trapping them. Hannibal raises siege of Locri, & Mago makes successful sortie, aided by Numidian cavalry. 2.9 2:25.

29 881 Crispinus sent Marcellus' army back to Venusia & requested wisdom & experience be sent to him. Senate sent Q. Fabius & 3 representatives. M. Valerius sailed to Africa with 100 vessels, defeating Carthaginian fleet of 83 ships. Philip aided Achaeans against Machanidas & Aetolians. Attalus may visit Europe. 1.9 1:35.

30 882 Philip defeated Pyrrhias in 2 battles, losing over 1000 men each. Philip then marched to Phalara, where he received embassies seeking reconciliation with Aetolians. 30-day armistice was arranged, & Philip went to Argos, where he was awarded presidency of Heraean & Nemean Games. 2.8 2:20.

31 883 Philip defeated Romans, enhancing splendor of Games. He mingled with citizens, abandoning his royal state. However, his debauchery & criminal violence tainted his actions. He took Polycratia, wife of Aratus, to Macedon, promising marriage. Philip then marched to expel Aetolian garrison from Dymae. 1.9 1:35.

32 884 Philip's army plundered & destroyed on first day. On second, they marched towards Elis, provoking Aetolians. Philip charged into battle, showing courage despite being wounded & fleeing on another horse. He took 4000 prisoners & 20,000 cattle at Pyrgon, then returned to Macedonia due to threats from Eropus. 1.8 1:30.

33 885 Philip received alarming news in Macedonia, including rumors of his own death. Sulpicius sailed to Aegina, & Scipio joined forces with Attalus in Spain. Achaeans, Aetolians, & Eleans won battle near Messene. 2 consuls killed, unprecedented occurrence, leaving republic in state of "orphanhood". 1.7 1:25.

34 886 C. Claudius Nero was chosen as consul, but needed colleague. M. Livius, former consul who had been disgraced & lived in exile, was considered. Despite his initial refusal, Livius was convinced by senators' appeals & became consul alongside Nero, putting aside his past grievances. 2.4 2:00.

35 887 Praetors elected, & Dictator & Master of Horse resigned. C. Terentius Varro was sent to Etruria, L. Manlius to Greece. Consuls-elect Nero & Livius urged to reconcile, & their provinces assigned: Nero to Bruttium & Lucania, Livius to Gaul. Fabius became proconsul. 2 1:40.

36 888 Hasdrubal's arrival in Italy was imminent. Massilians reported he had entered Gaul with gold for auxiliaries. Envoys confirmed his plan to cross Alps with large army next spring. Censors closed lustrum, recording 137,108 citizens. Consuls Nero & Livius took office, & praetors balloted for provinces. 1.8 1:30.

37 889 Religious observances held for 9 days due to shower of stones at Veii. More portents followed, including blood stream at Menturnae & wolf in Capua. Expiatory rites performed, & 2nd nine-day observance was held. hermaphroditic child was banished & buried at sea. 2.5 2:05.

38 890 Consuls levied troops with rigor, including from maritime colonies. 7 colonies sent representatives, but only Antium & Ostia exempt. Senate gave consuls full powers to obtain reinforcements, including 8,000 Gauls & Spaniards, 2,000 legionaries, 1000 Numidian & Spanish horse, & 3,000 bowmen & slingers from Sicily. 1.7 1:25.

39 891 L. Porcius reported Hasdrubal's advance with 8,000 Ligurian troops. Consuls hastened enlistment & left for provinces early. Hannibal miscalculated Hasdrubal's passage, expecting delays. Hasdrubal had rapid march, gaining Gallic support, but wasted time besieging Placentia, slowing his advance & Hannibal's movements. 2.2 1:50.

40 892 Rome faced 2 wars simultaneously, causing anxiety. Consuls left for front, each by separate route. M. Livius showed bitterness towards his fellow-citizens, eager to fight despite warnings. Hannibal was attacked by C. Hostilius, losing 4,000 men & 9 standards. Corps d'elite of 40,000 infantry & 2,500 cavalry was selected to confront him. 2.2 1:50.

41 893 Hannibal marched to Grumentum, aiming to recover towns that defected to

Rome. Roman consul followed, setting up camp nearby. Skirmishes occurred between camps, & Hannibal marched out to battle. consul sent detachment to ambush enemy from nearby hill, & at dawn, both sides engaged in battle. 1.7 1:25.

42 894 Hannibal's army was defeated, with over 8000 killed & 700 captured. Roman losses around 500. Hannibal retreated to Apulia, leaving few Numidians to deceive Romans. Consul pursued him, catching up near Venusia & inflicting another 2000 casualties. Hannibal then marched to Metapontum, where he joined forces with Hanno. 2.6 2:10.

43 895 Four Gaulish & 2 Numidian troopers carrying despatches from Hasdrubal to Hannibal captured & brought to Q. Claudius. Despatches revealed Hasdrubal's plan to meet Hannibal in Umbria. Consul Claudius Nero sent despatches to senate & prepared to march with 6,000 infantry & 1,000 cavalry to join his colleague. 1.9 1:35.

44 896 Rome was in an uproar over Consul Nero's bold march with 6,000 infantry & 1,000 cavalry to join his colleague. Many criticized his decision, fearing Hannibal would attack undefended camp or pursue Nero's small force. They recalled past disasters & worried about facing 2 experienced commanders, Hannibal & Hasdrubal. 1.8 1:30.

45 897 Nero addressed his troops, assuring them of certain victory. He highlighted significance of their addition to existing force, stating that it would tip scales in their favor. soldiers marched amidst enthusiastic crowds, receiving blessings & prayers for successful battle. Nero sent messages to his colleague, planning nighttime arrival. 1.9 1:35.

46 898 Nero's army joined Livius' camp, hiding their numbers from Hasdrubal. council debated postponing battle, but Nero urged immediate action, arguing that delaying would allow Hannibal to join Hasdrubal & threaten Apulia & Gaul. red ensign was displayed, & army marched into battle. 2.2 1:50.

47 899 Hasdrubal suspected Romans had combined their forces, but his scouts mistakenly reported no changes in camps. He ordered night march, but guides escaped, leaving army to march aimlessly. Hasdrubal struggled to find crossing point on Metaurus River, wasting time & allowing Romans to catch up. 2.2 1:50.

48 900 Nero, Porcius, & Livius attacked Hasdrubal's weary army. Romans formed line, with Nero on right, Livius on left, & Porcius in center. battle was fierce, with heavy losses on both sides. Nero outflanked enemy, attacking their rear, & Spaniards & Ligurians massacred. 2.5 2:05.

49 901 Hasdrubal fought bravely, encouraging his men & rallying them in flight. Eventually, he died fighting, surrounded by Romans. Battle resulted in 56,000 enemy dead, 5,400 prisoners, & significant plunder. However, Romans also suffered heavy losses, with around 8000 killed. 1.6 1:20.

50 902 Nero returned to his camp after battle, & his arrival was met with immense joy. In Rome, citizens & senators anxiously awaited news, with matrons praying in shrines. rumor of victory spread, but was initially met with skepticism due to its seeming impossibility & rapid transmission. 1.8 1:30.

51 903 Envoys brought news of victory to Rome, causing widespread joy. senate decreed three-day thanksgiving, & services attended by men & women alike. victory relieved financial situation, & business resumed as usual. Hannibal, stunned by defeat, retreated to Bruttium with his supporters. 1.9 1:35.

28 209 - 05 (544 - 8) 4
Final Conquest in Spain
46 110.5 1:33:05 27.63

1 904 In Spain, new Carthaginian general, Hanno, raised an army in Celtiberia. Scipio sent M. Silanus with 10,000 infantry & 500 cavalry to counter him. Silanus marched quickly, aided by Celtiberian deserters, & found enemy camps. He decided to attack undisciplined Celtiberian camp first, with 9,000 soldiers. 1.4 1:10.

2 905 M. Silanus led 10,000 infantry & 500 cavalry against Celtiberian camp, catching them off guard. Enemy had 4000 shielded men & 200 cavalry. Romans won, killing most of heavy infantry & capturing Hanno. Only 2,000 infantry escaped, & Mago fled with his cavalry to join Hasdrubal at Gades. 2.4 2:00.

3 906 Lucius Scipio attacked Orongi with 10,000 infantry & 1000 cavalry. City resisted, but after fierce fight, gates opened, & Romans entered. About 2,000 enemy soldiers fell, & 90 Romans. City was spared, & population's property was restored, except for Carthaginians & 1,000 townsmen who had resisted. 2.5 2:05.

4 907 Lucius Scipio's capture of Orongis was highly praised by his brother Scipio & army. winter brought an end to hostilities, & Scipio returned to Hither Spain, sending his brother to Rome with prisoners. Roman fleet meanwhile ravaged Africa, defeating Carthaginian fleet & returning to Sicily with plunder. 1 :50.

5 908 Philip, king of Macedon, responded to pleas for help from his allies, sending troops to various regions. He himself marched to Scotusa, then Heraclea, destroying crops & returning to Demetrias. Meanwhile, Roman general & Attalus sailed to Nicaea & Oreus, planning joint attack on Oreus by sea & land.2.5 2:05.

6 909 The Romans & Attalus captured Oreus, thanks to Plator's betrayal. Macedonian garrison was spared & sent to Demetrium. Sulpicius then sailed to Chalcis, but his fleet faced dangerous waters & strong fortifications. He wisely retreated to Cynos in Locris, abandoning his attack on Chalcis. 1.9 1:35.

7 910 Philip marched to relieve Chalcis, but Attalus captured Opus. Philip's rapid advance surprised Attalus, who fled to his ships. Philip captured Thronium, Tithronon, & Drymiae, then went to Elatia for meeting with Ptolemy's & Rhodes' ambassadors. He later marched to prevent Machanidas from attacking Eleans during Olympic Games. 3 2:30.

8 911 Philip spoke confidently to council, despite his disappointments. He restored Heraea & Triphylia to Achaeans & sailed to Anticyra, then Eruthrae, where he plundered area & sent spoils to Aegium. He re-embarked at Cenchreae, sailed past Attica, & arrived at Chalcis, praising citizens' loyalty. 2.4 2:00.

9 912 Consuls M. Livius & C. Claudius Nero returned to Rome, welcomed by population. They reported their military successes to senate & requested triumph. Livius rode in chariot, Nero on horseback, sharing triumph. 300,000 sesterces & 80,000 bronze coins brought into treasury. 3.1 2:35.

10 913 A Dictator, M. Livius, was appointed to conduct elections. Q. Caecilius & L. Veturius elected consuls. Four praetors appointed. Dictator investigated Etrusian cantons that aided Hasdrubal. Roman Games & Plebeian Games celebrated. 13th year of Punic War began, with consuls & praetors assigned to various provinces. 2 1:40.

11 914 Numerous portents reported, including lightning strikes, unusual animal births, & talking ox. consuls expiated portents with sacrifices & day of intercession. fire in temple of Vesta went out, & vestal was punished. senate advised consuls to restore plebeians to their land. 2.8 2:20.

12 915 Hannibal didn't engage in battle this year, despite his army of 13 years surviving in enemy territory. His diverse army remained loyal, even without pay or supplies. Hasdrubal Gisgo & Mago renewed hostilities in Spain, gathering large force of 50,000 infantry & 4,500 cavalry near Silpia, ready for battle. Some sources report 70,000 infantry. 2.4 2:00.

13 916 Scipio's army, including Roman legions & native auxiliaries, totaled 55,000 men (3,000 infantry & 500 cavalry from Culchas & 50,000 infantry & 4,500 cavalry from other sources). Near Baecula, they repelled cavalry attack by Mago & Masinissa, routing assailants & gaining upper hand in subsequent skirmishes. 1.6 1:20.

14 917 Scipio's army, with Roman troops on wings & Spanish auxiliaries in center, advanced on Carthaginian army. cavalry fought inconclusively, then Scipio's infantry cohorts & light cavalry attacked wings, wheeling round to flank enemy, while center advanced slowly, threatening to sever Carthaginian wings from their center. 2.9 2:25.

15 918 Scipio's army attacked Hasdrubal's exhausted forces, causing them to retreat. Despite attempts to rally, Carthaginians fled in disorder to their camp, where they reformed their ranks. However, they abandoned their camp that night, fearing another battle, & Hasdrubal shifted his camp to prevent further desertions. 2.3 1:55.

16 919 Scipio's army pursued Hasdrubal's forces, attacking them in flank & rear. Hasdrubal fled to hills with 6,000 men, leaving rest to be killed or captured. Scipio left Silanus to besiege Carthaginian camp with 10,000 infantry & 1,000 cavalry, while he returned to Tarraco, taking 70 days to march. 2.1 1:45.

17 920 Scipio sent Lucius to Rome with prisoners to announce Spain's subjugation. Scipio then sought to gain African allies, sending Laelius with presents to Syphax, king of Masaesulians. Syphax agreed to friendly terms, & Scipio sailed to Africa with Laelius, narrowly avoiding Hasdrubal's ships. They met Syphax, who received them peacefully. 2.3 1:55.

18 921 Syphax hosted Scipio & Hasdrubal, seeking to reconcile them. Scipio declined to discuss state affairs without senate orders. At Syphax's request, they dined together, with Scipio charming both Syphax & Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal admired Scipio's skill in winning men, recognizing Rome's potential to gain Africa. Scipio sailed back to New Carthage after 4-day journey. 1.5 1:15.

19 922 Scipio sent Marcius to Castulo & marched to Iliturgi, which closed its gates. Scipio rallied his soldiers, seeking vengeance for past treachery. town resisted fiercely, but Scipio's army breached walls & captured citadel. Iliturgi fell after five-day march & intense battle. 3.3 2:45.

20 923 African deserters helped Romans capture Iliturgi by scaling cliff. Romans massacred everyone, destroying city. Scipio then marched to Castulo, which surrendered after news of Iliturgi's fall. Cerdubelus, Spaniard, betrayed city & Carthaginians to Scipio, who showed clemency due to voluntary surrender. 1.7 1:25.

21 924 Marcius was sent to subjugate remaining tribes. Scipio returned to New Carthage to fulfill vows & host gladiatorial games in honor of his father & uncle. Volunteers, including nobles Corbis & Orsua, fought to settle disputes. Corbis won, demonstrating destructive power of ambition. 1.5 1:15.

22 925 Marcius received surrender of 2 cities without fight. Astapa, city that hated Romans, refused to surrender. Its inhabitants, fearing Roman wrath, piled their valuables & family members in forum, ordering 50 armed men to kill them if city fell. Romans eventually prevailed. 2.8 2:20.

23 926 The people of Astapa massacred their own families & burned themselves alive, leaving nothing for Romans to plunder. Marcius returned to Scipio at New Carthage, where deserters offered to surrender Gades, its Carthaginian garrison, & ships. Scipio sent Marcius & Laelius to capture city by land & sea. 1.4 1:10.

24 927 In Spain, rumor of Scipio's death spread, causing unrest. Friendly states & army wavered in loyalty. In Roman camp at Sucro, 8,000 men grew restless, demanding pay & eventually mutinying, driving out tribunes & electing 2 common soldiers, Albius & Atrius, as their leaders. 2.8 2:20.

25 928 Rumors of Scipio's death ceased, & mutiny leaders feared punishment. 7 tribunes sent by Scipio calmed situation, listening to soldiers' grievances about pay & recognition. Scipio addressed their concerns, sending collectors to tributary states & ordering soldiers to assemble at New Carthage for payment. 2.8 2:20.

26 929 A council of war decided to punish only 35 ringleaders of mutiny. army was told they would march against Mandonius & Indibilis, but instead, ringleaders arrested & manacled in their homes. next day, troops surrounded by armed soldiers, & Scipio addressed them, his health & vigor daunting them into submission. 2.3 1:55.

27 930 Scipio addressed mutineers, expressing disbelief & pain at their actions. He questioned their loyalty, asking if they Romans or enemies, & condemned their choice of leaders. He emphasized gravity of their crime, comparing it to portent requiring expiation by blood of guilty ringleaders. 3 2:30.

28 931 Scipio questioned mutineers' intentions, citing historical examples of legions punished for similar crimes. He asked if they planned to occupy Sucro permanently, noting their inferior numbers & leadership compared to his own army & other Roman generals. He emphasized Rome's enduring power & sovereignty. 2.6 2:10.

29 932 Scipio addressed mutineers, asking if brief pay delay justified their rebellion. He forgave army, but not 35 ringleaders, including Albius & Atrius. They punished with scourging & beheading, witnessed by terror-stricken soldiers, who then took an oath of obedience & received their pay. 2.6 2:10.

30 933 Hanno raised 4,000 men among Spanish tribes, but his camp was captured by L. Marcius, & he escaped with few men. Laelius sailed to Carteia, where plot to surrender Gades was discovered. He then attacked Adherbal's fleet, sinking 2 triremes & disabling another, before Adherbal escaped to Africa with 5 ships. 2.1 1:45.

31 934Laelius returned to Carteia, learning plot to surrender Gades had been discovered. He & Marcius rejoined Scipio at New Carthage. Mago, feeling relieved, sought help from Carthage to reconquer Spain. Mandonius & Indibilis, with 20,000 infantry & 2,500 cavalry, resumed hostilities, marching to Sedetania. 1.2 1:00.

32 935 Scipio regained his soldiers' affection with pay & kindness. He denounced Ilergetes' treachery & contrasted his mercy towards his own 8,000 men with his determination to punish Ilergetes. He marched against them, confident in his army's strength & seeking to inflict punishment for their crimes. 2.3 1:55.

33 936 Scipio's army reached Ebro & soon engaged enemy. He used clever tactic, ordering Laelius to lead cavalry around hills & attack from behind, while infantry fought in narrow valley. Spanish defeated, with all cavalry & infantry in valley killed. 2.7 2:15.

34 937 The Spanish camp was captured, with 3,000 prisoners taken & 2,000 Romans & allies killed. Indibilis surrendered, pleading for mercy. Scipio spared their lives, but imposed pecuniary indemnity to pay troops' wages. He then marched to Southern Spain with light-armed force, joining Marcius near ocean. 2 1:40.

35 938 Masinissa met Scipio, seeking to confirm their alliance. He was impressed by Scipio's presence & majesty, & pledged to provide zealous assistance to

Rome. Scipio welcomed his support, knowing Masinissa's value in enemy's cavalry. They parted ways, with Masinissa returning to Gades after plundering mainland. 2.2 1:50.

36 939 Mago, despairing of success in Spain, sailed to Italy with his fleet, plundering fields near New Carthage. He attempted night attack on city, but was repelled with heavy loss, 800 men killed & 2,000 arms captured. His fleet escaped to ocean, leaving many to perish in darkness. 2 1:40.

37 940 Mago, denied entry to Gades, anchored at Cimbii & had sufetes & treasurer scourged & crucified. He sailed to Pityusa, receiving supplies & reinforcements, then to Balearic Isles. larger island's inhabitants repelled his fleet with slings, but he occupied smaller island, raising 2,000 auxiliaries. 1.5 1:15.

38 941 Scipio returned to Rome, reporting his Spanish campaigns to senate. He had 14,342 pounds of silver & great quantity of silver coins deposited in treasury. He was elected consul with P. Licinius Crassus, taking Sicily as his province, while Crassus took Bruttium. 1.9 1:35.

39 942 A deputation from Saguntum thanked senate for their kindness & victories in Spain. They praised Scipio for capturing cities & freeing Saguntines. senate granted permission to place golden crown in Capitol & awarded each envoy 10,000 ases. They also requested to tour Italy, & guides & letters provided. 3.5 2:55.

40 943 Q. Fabius Maximus spoke against assigning Africa as province to Scipio without senate decision. He argued that it would be sham discussion & exposed himself to charges of timidity & envy. Fabius cited his past experiences & age, saying he had no rivalry with Scipio, who was younger than his son. 2.6 2:10.

41 944 Fabius Maximus urged Scipio to prioritize defeating Hannibal in Italy over invading Africa, citing war's duration & gravity. He warned of dangers of dividing resources & potential for disaster, referencing past defeats & importance of securing victory at home before expanding elsewhere. 2.9 2:25.

42 945 Fabius Maximus cautioned Scipio against invading Africa, citing unpredictability of war & dangers of trusting Numidian allies. He argued that Scipio's priority should be defeating Hannibal in Italy, where war's outcome would have greater impact, rather than pursuing personal glory in Africa. 4.5 3:45.

43 946 Scipio replied to Fabius, acknowledging his achievements but expressing his own desire to surpass them. He questioned Fabius's sudden concern for his safety, given his successful campaigns in Spain. Scipio argued that he had proven himself capable & that invading Africa was necessary step to end war. 3.8 3:10.

44 947 Scipio argued that attacking Africa would show courage & remove danger from

Rome. He believed Carthaginians' mercenary army would defect, & Syphax & Masinissa would aid him. He wanted to shift war's focus to Africa, threatening Carthage & giving Italy rest. He expressed confidence in his plan & his own abilities. 3.2 2:40.

45 948 Scipio was granted permission to sail to Africa if he thought it was in State's interest. Senate decreed that one consul would take Sicily & 30 warships, & other would take Bruttium & fight Hannibal. Scipio was allowed to enlist volunteers & accept materials from allies for ship construction. Etrurian cantons contributed resources, including corn, iron, cloth, timber, & weapons. Other cities & regions promised men, timber, & provisions. Scipio built 30 ships (20 quinqueremes, 10 quadriremes) in just 45 days. 3.3 2:45.

46 949 Scipio sailed to Sicily with 7,000 volunteers on 30 warships. Mago sailed to Italy with 12,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, & 30 warships, capturing Genua & allying with Ingauni. Rome sent orders to move army of Etruria to Ariminum & empowered City praetor to employ City legions elsewhere. 2.4 2:00.

29 205 - 02 (548 - 51) 3
Scipio in Africa
38 80.7 1:07:15 26.9

1 950 Scipio organized 7,000 volunteers into maniples & centuries, selecting 300 robust men & 300 noble cavalrymen. He allowed reluctant cavalrymen to opt out, replacing them with Romans. He inspected legions, choosing experienced men, & distributed his army amongst fortified towns. He refitted old ships & beached new ones. 3.8 3:10.

2 951 Roman commanders Lentulus & Manlius united their forces & marched into Ausetanian territory. They defeated Spanish army, killing 13,000 & taking 1,800 prisoners. Roman losses minimal, mostly on left wing. Spanish dispersed & returned to their communities, their army defeated. 2.5 2:05.

3 952 The Spanish tribes surrendered, blaming Indibilis for war. Mandonius & other chiefs handed over to Romans. tribes required to furnish double pay, corn, cloaks, & hostages. revolt was crushed, & attention turned to Africa. Carthage was alarmed by Laelius' raid, fearing Scipio's arrival. 2.2 1:50.

4 953 Carthage raised levy, enlisted mercenaries, & prepared defenses. They sent envoys to Syphax & Philip, & instructed generals in Italy to keep Scipio occupied. They sent 25 warships, 6,000 infantry, 800 cavalry, 7 elephants, & money to Mago. Masinissa visited Laelius, urging Scipio to invade Africa with his assistance. 1.9 1:35.

5 954 Mago's fleet anchored between Ingauni & Genua, where he met with Gallic & Ligurian chieftains. He urged them to join him in resisting Romans, but they agreed only to secret assistance, fearing invasion from 2 sides. Mago hired mercenaries & received supplies from communities. 1.6 1:20.

6 955 Scipio's plan to invade Africa was delayed by smaller project, conquest of Locri. Locrian nobles, exiled in Regium, learned from captured artisans that citadel could be betrayed. Scipio sent 3,000 men, who scaled walls with ladders, capturing citadel. Hannibal arrived, but Romans held out with help of local population. 3 2:40.

7 956 Scipio sailed to Locri, fearing for garrison's safety. Hannibal arrived, ordering Hamilcar to attack while he assaulted opposite side. However, Hannibal retreated after sudden Roman sally, killing 200 Carthaginians. He abandoned citadel, setting fires to delay pursuit, & rejoined his main force. 1.8 1:30.

8 957 Scipio rebuked Locrians for their defection, executed revolt's authors, & rewarded loyalists. He left Pleminius & detachment to protect city, but they surpassed Carthaginians in cruelty, committing unspeakable outrages & sacrilege, including plundering Proserpine's treasury, leading to chaos & strife. 1.5 1:15.

9 958 Pleminius' soldier stole cup, leading to fight between his men & military tribunes. Pleminius had tribunes beaten, but they rescued by their men, who mutilated Pleminius. Scipio acquitted Pleminius, but imprisoned tribunes. Pleminius, enraged, tortured & killed tribunes & innocent citizens, bringing shame to himself & Scipio. 1.9 1:35.

10 959 Consul P. Licinius requested Quintus Caecilius Metellus be appointed Dictator to conduct elections due to illness in his army. senate agreed, & also discussed religious matter: bringing Mater Idaea from Pessinus to Rome to secure victory over Hannibal, as predicted by Sibylline Books & favorable oracle at Delphi. 1.5 1:15.

11 960 Roman envoys sailed to Asia to secure King Attalus' help in bringing Mater Idaea to

Rome. They consulted Delphic oracle, which predicted success with Attalus' aid. Attalus handed over sacred stone, & Romans elected new consuls & praetors, celebrated games, & dedicated temple to Virtus. 2.1 1:45.

12 961 Philip forced Aetolians to sue for peace, then marched to Apollonia, where Sempronius had 10,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry, & 35 ships. Philip ravaged countryside, then withdrew. Epirotes brokered peace conference at Phoenice, where Sempronius & Philip agreed to terms, including 2-month armistice & Roman control of Parthini & 3 towns. 2.5 2:05.

13 962 Consuls P. Sempronius & M. Cornelius took office in 15th year of Punic War. Sempronius got Bruttium, Cornelius got Etruria. Praetors assigned to various jurisdictions & provinces, including Sicily, Sardinia, & Gaul. Some commanders, like P. Scipio & L. Cornelius Lentulus, had their commands extended. 1.2 1:00.

14 963 Rumors of war in Africa & superstition filled air. Portents expiated with prayers & sacrifices. senate chose P. Scipio, young man, to receive Mater Idaea at Ostia, accompanied by matrons. They brought goddess to temple of Victory on Palatine, where Games instituted in her honor. 2.4 2:00.

15 964 The senate decreed that 12 Latin colonies, which had refused to supply soldiers, must now provide twice their largest contingent, plus 120 cavalry. Those unable to provide cavalry could substitute foot-soldiers. 10% property tax was also imposed. colonies protested, but consuls inflexible. 2.5 2:05.

16 965 M. Valerius Laevinus reminded senate of private contributions made during his consulship & advocated for repayment. senate decreed repayment in 3 installments. Then, delegates from Locri arrived, describing atrocities committed by Pleminius & Scipio's inaction, & begged to address senate, displaying olive branches & pleading for help. 1.4 1:10.

17 966 A Locrian delegate addressed senate, describing atrocities committed by Pleminius & his soldiers after recapturing Locri from Hannibal. They suffered worse treatment than under Carthaginian rule, with robbery, violence, & outrages against women & children. delegate appealed for help, saying their suffering was unbearable. 3.1 2:35.

18 967 The Locrian delegate appealed to senate to address sacrilege committed by Pleminius & his soldiers, who plundered temple of Proserpine. delegate described goddess's wrath, manifest in violent conflicts among soldiers & gruesome punishment of military tribunes. He begged senate to intervene. 3.5 2:55.

19 968 The senate debated Locrian delegate's speech, with Q. Fabius criticizing Scipio's leadership & moving to recall him & punish Pleminius. Fabius' resolution included restoring Locrians' property, expiating sacrilege, & transferring soldiers to Sicily. debate was heated, with Scipio's style & leadership questioned. 2.2 1:50.

20 969 The senate resolves to investigate Scipio's conduct in Spain, following Locrians' complaints. praetor, M. Pomponius, & team will investigate & potentially recall Scipio. resolution aims to determine if Scipio was responsible for alleged cruelties & to ensure proper command of army. 1.9 1:35.

21 970 Pleminius is arrested & brought to Regium. praetor & commission investigate & expiate desecration of Proserpine's temple. They restore Locri's constitution & laws, & offer trials for Pleminius & Scipio. Locrians praise Rome & decide to prosecute Pleminius but spare Scipio, acknowledging his lack of involvement in crimes. 2.3 1:55.

22 971 Scipio demonstrates his military preparedness to commission, showcasing his army's & fleet's readiness for battle. commission is impressed, bids him to sail for Africa, & reports back to Rome with enthusiasm. Pleminius, imprisoned in Rome, dies in prison before his trial ends, allegedly after failed escape attempt. 1.8 1:30.

23 972 The Carthaginians, anxious about potential Roman invasion, form an alliance with King Syphax, who has married Hasdrubal's daughter. Hasdrubal, aware of Syphax's fickle nature & Scipio's previous treaty with him, sends envoys to Scipio warning him not to invade Africa, threatening to defend Carthage if necessary. 1.8 1:30.

24 973 Scipio receives Syphax's envoys, who warn him not to invade Africa. Scipio sends them back with letter reminding Syphax of their alliance & warning him against breaking ties with

Rome. Scipio then prepares his army for invasion, assembling 6,200 men & 300 cavalry in each of 5th & sixth legions. 2.6 2:10.

25 974 Scipio prepares his army for invasion, but estimates of troop numbers vary (10,000-32,000 infantry & 2200-1600 cavalry). Scipio supervises embarkation, ensuring 45 days' provisions & water. He assigns commands & signals, instructing pilots to sail for Emporia, fertile & vulnerable district. 1.9 1:35.

26 975 Scipio's fleet departs from Lilybaeum, Sicily, with 40 warships & 400 transports, carrying his army to invade Africa. occasion is momentous, with large crowd of spectators gathered to witness departure, including deputations from various cities & legions remaining in Sicily. 1.2 1:00.

27 976 Scipio's fleet departs from Sicily, & he offers prayer for successful invasion of Africa. Despite favorable winds, fleet encounters thick fog & anchor's at Pulchrum (Cape Beautiful). entire force is landed, & Scipio accepts omen, considering voyage good sign. 2.5 2:10.

28 977 This text describes landing of Roman forces in Africa, led by Scipio, & subsequent panic & alarm among Carthaginians. Romans establish camp on high ground, while Carthaginians, led by Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, scramble to respond. Carthaginians are fearful, knowing they are outmatched by Scipio's army, & prepare for an anticipated assault. skirmish occurs between Roman & Carthaginian cavalry, while Scipio sends troops to plunder surrounding fields. Carthaginians are in disarray, having not faced Roman army in nearly 50 years. 1.6 1:20.

29 978 Romans kill enemy troops & capture city, taking 8000 prisoners. Masinissa arrives with 200-2000 men, boosting Roman morale. Masinissa's backstory: his father Gala dies, & uncle Oezalces takes throne. Oezalces' son Capussa succeeds him, but is overthrown by Mazaetullus, who installs Lacumazes as king & takes title of Protector. 1.7 1:25.

30 979 Masinissa leaves Spain for Mauretania, obtaining 4000 Moors as an escort. He reaches Numidia, gaining 500 supporters. He captures Thapsus, & his success draws more Numidians to his cause. Despite being outnumbered (15,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry), Masinissa defeats Mazaetullus & Lacumazes, reclaiming his throne. 1.9 1:35.

31 980 Hasdrubal warns Syphax that Masinissa's abilities & character will lead to trouble if not addressed. Syphax defeats Masinissa in battle, & latter escapes to mountains with few horsemen. From there, they harass surrounding country, mostly Carthaginian territory, selling plunder to traders & causing chaos. 1.9 1:35.

32 981 Boncar attacks Masinissa with 4,000 infantry & 200 horsemen, driving him into mountains. Masinissa escapes with 50 troopers, but is pursued & wounded. He crosses river with 2 survivors, while Boncar reports his death to king. Masinissa recovers, regains his kingdom with 6,000 infantry & 4000 cavalry, & provokes Syphax into hostilities. 2.3 1:55.

33 982 Syphax & his son Vermina attack Masinissa from both sides, gaining decisive victory. Masinissa escapes with 200 horsemen, but most are killed or captured. He flees with 60 troopers to Lesser Syrtis, where he remains until Scipio's arrival in Africa. 1.7 1:25.

34 983 Hanno, son of Hamilcar, leads new Carthaginian cavalry force of 4,000 men. Masinissa, with Roman cavalry, draws them into action, then retreats. Scipio's cavalry attacks from behind, surrounding & killing 1,000 Carthaginians, including Hanno. Rest flee, with 2,000 killed or captured, including 200 Carthaginians. 2.5 2:10.

35 984 Scipio's army returns with spoils, & he rewards his cavalry & Masinissa. He then lays siege to Utica, but abandons it when Hasdrubal (with 30,000 infantry & 3,000 cavalry) & Syphax (with 50,000 infantry & 10,000 cavalry) approach. Scipio constructs an intrenched camp on headland. 2.1 1:45.

36 985Cnaeus Octavius sends corn & clothing to Scipio's army. Consul P. Sempronius is defeated by Hannibal, but regroups with P. Licinius & defeats Hannibal, killing 4,000, capturing 300, & taking 40 horses & standards. Meanwhile, consul M. Cornelius investigates & condemns Etrurian nobles for supporting Mago, confiscating their property. 1.8 1:30.

37 986Censors M. Livius & C. Claudius revise senate roll, expel 7 members, & impose salt tax. They conduct census, counting 214,000 citizens. Dispute arises between them, each accusing other of wrongdoing. Livius reduces 33 tribes to aerarii status, while Nero disfranchises Livius. 3.1 2:35.

38 987 Consul Cornelius returns to Rome to conduct elections, & new consuls & praetors are elected. Priesthood vacancies are filled, including Tiberius Veturius Philo as Flamen of Mars & Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus as augur. Golden chariots are placed in Capitol, & Roman Games are celebrated for 2 days. .9 :45.

30 202 - 1 (551 - 2) 1
Close of Hannibalic War
45 89.6 1:14:40 89.6

1 988 The senate resolves that consuls, Cnaeus Servilius & Caius Servilius, shall decide by ballot which shall oppose Hannibal in Bruttium & which shall have Etruria & Liguria as their province. provinces are assigned, with Caepio receiving Bruttium & Servilius Geminus receiving Etruria. 1.5 1:15.

2 989 3,000 men are raised for Sicily, & 2,000 for fleet. M. Pomponius & Cnaeus Octavius are assigned fleets of 40 ships each. M. Marcius receives 40 ships to watch Italian coast. 20 legions & 160 ships are on active service. Consuls are ordered to celebrate Great Games. Portents are expiated with sacrifices. 1.8 1:30.

3 990 Consuls & praetors depart to their provinces, but remain interested in Africa. Scipio maintains siege of Utica, while also trying to win Syphax over. Syphax proposes peace terms, but Scipio stalls, hoping to use negotiations as distraction to burn Carthaginian camp, which is largely made of wood. 1.5 1:15.

4 991 Roman centurions, disguised as servants, gather intel on Carthaginian camp while pretending to negotiate peace with Syphax. Scipio uses this info to plan surprise attack, feigning interest in peace to lull enemy into complacency. He sends 2,000 men to hold strategic hill, then breaks off negotiations. 1.9 1:35.

5 992 Scipio summons council of war, & with intel from spies & Masinissa, plans night attack. At midnight, they reach enemy camp, & Laelius & Masinissa attack Syphax's camp, setting it on fire. Scipio attacks Hasdrubal's camp, & combined forces cause chaos & destruction. 1.3 1:05.

6 993 In Carthaginian camp, 40,000 men perished from fire or sword, 5,000 taken alive, including 11 senators. 2,000 infantry & 500 cavalry escaped. Romans captured 174 standards, 2,700 horses, 6 elephants, & large quantity of arms, which burned as an offering to Vulcan. 1.2 1:00.

7 994 Hasdrubal fled to Carthage, fearing surrender. 2 cities taken & sacked. Syphax regrouped 8 miles away with 30,000 men, including 4,000 Celtiberian mercenaries. His wife, Sophonisba, urged him to continue fighting, & he assured Carthaginian deputation that he would call out all Numidian fighting men. 1.9 1:35.

8 995 Scipio marched to meet Syphax & Hasdrubal, & after days of skirmishes, 2 sides clashed in battle. Numidian & Carthaginian cavalry routed, but Celtiberians fought on, surrounded & outnumbered, until they fell one by one. Syphax & Hasdrubal escaped, & Romans exhausted by slaughter. 1.5 1:15.

9 996 Scipio sent Laelius to pursue Syphax & Hasdrubal, while he captured nearby cities. Carthage prepared for siege, repairing walls & gathering supplies. senate considered recalling Hannibal & sending fleet to attack Utica. Scipio seized Tyneta, 15 miles from Carthage, with view of sea & city. 1.5 1:15.

10 997 Scipio's army advanced rapidly to Utica, fearing fleet would be caught off guard. He arranged transports in line, four deep, with warships behind & connected them with ropes & planks. About 1,000 men & many missiles placed on board. Carthaginians attacked, but their missiles ineffective against higher transports. 6 Roman transports towed off to Carthage, but Romans narrowly escaped destruction due to Carthaginian commander's slackness. 2.8 2:20.

11 998 Laelius & Masinissa entered Numidia, & Maesulians welcomed their king back. Syphax, goaded by his wife & father-in-law, assembled an army & marched against Romans. cavalry engaged, but Roman light infantry steadied line, & Maesulians thrown into confusion & gave ground. 1.9 1:35.

12 999 Syphax was thrown off his horse & captured by Laelius. Masinissa, delighted, asked to take cavalry to Cirta, Syphax's capital, & Laelius agreed. Masinissa surprised Cirta, & citizens surrendered. Sophonisba, Syphax's wife, begged Masinissa to spare her from Romans, & he, overcome with passion, married her that day. 3.3 2:45.

13 1000 Syphax, in chains, was brought to Scipio's camp, followed by Numidian nobles. soldiers exaggerated Syphax's greatness, recalling his alliances with Rome & Carthage. Scipio, moved by their past friendship, questioned Syphax, who admitted his folly in denouncing Rome & blamed his Carthaginian wife, Sophonisba, for his downfall. 1.9 1:35.

14 1001 Scipio rebuked Masinissa for his hasty marriage to Sophonisba, citing his own continence & self-control. He reminded Masinissa that Syphax's wife & kingdom belonged to Rome as spoils of war & urged him to conquer his feelings & avoid sullying his good qualities with vice. 2.1 1:45.

15 1002 Masinissa, distraught over Scipio's request to surrender Sophonisba, sent her poisoned cup, saying he couldn't fulfill his promise to keep her from Romans. Sophonisba drank it fearlessly, saying she would have died happier if her marriage bed weren't so near her grave. Scipio consoled Masinissa, presenting him with honors & gifts. 2.1 1:45.

16 1003 Laelius took Syphax & prisoners to Rome, accompanied by Masinissa's envoys. Scipio returned to Tyneta & completed fortifications. Carthaginians, losing heart, sent "30 Seniors" to Scipio to sue for peace. Scipio proposed terms: surrender of prisoners, withdrawal from Italy & Gaul, & navy, with 500,000 peck wheat & 300,000 peck barley tribute. 2.1 1:45.

17 1004 Laelius arrived in Rome with Syphax & prisoners, reporting Scipio's successes. senate interned Syphax & ordered 4-day thanksgiving. Masinissa's envoys congratulated senate & thanked Scipio for his favors, requesting confirmation of Masinissa's royal title & release of Numidian prisoners. senate approved & sent gifts to Masinissa. 2.4 2:00.

18 1005Praetor P. Quintilius Varus & proconsul M. Cornelius fought Mago's army. Romans struggled until Quintilius led cavalry charge, but Mago's elephants terrified horses. Twelfth legion suffered heavy losses, but thirteenth legion's arrival turned tide. Carthaginians fled, losing 5000 men & 22 standards. Romans lost 2300 men. 2.5 2:05.

19 1006 Mago withdrew to Liguria, where he met Carthaginian delegation ordering him to sail to Africa. He embarked, but died at sea off Sardinia due to his wound. Some of his ships captured by Roman fleet. Meanwhile, C. Servilius rescued his father & C. Lutatius from 16 years of captivity in Gaul. 1.9 1:35.

20 1007 Hannibal was recalled to Africa by Carthaginian senate, leaving Italy after 16 years. He lamented his fate, blaming senate's envy & Hanno for his defeat, not Roman people or Scipio. He transported his army to Africa, but many Italian natives refused to follow, & murdered in temple. 1.4 1:10.

21 1008 Rome received news of Mago & Hannibal's departure, but was disappointed that their generals had not detained them. commission from Saguntum brought Carthaginians & money, which was returned. Senators reminded House of their past fears & called for thanksgiving, resulting in 5-day celebration with 120 sacrifices. 1.9 1:35.

22 1009 The Carthaginian envoys blamed Hannibal for war, claiming he acted without their authority. They requested to continue peace terms settled with C. Lutatius. When questioned, young envoys claimed they had no recollection of events, prompting outrage from senators, who saw it as Punic treachery. .9 :35.

23 1010 The senate debated Carthaginian envoys' proposal. M. Livius suggested waiting for consul C. Servilius, while Q. Metellus advocated for following Scipio's judgment. M. Valerius Laevinus deemed envoys spies & urged their expulsion from Italy, proposal supported by Laelius & Fulvius. senate adopted this stance, dismissing envoys with no peace agreement. 1.3 1:05.

24 1011 Consul Cnaeus Servilius was recalled from Sicily to Italy by Dictator P. Sulpicius. Meanwhile, Roman supplies sent to Africa, with some ships arriving safely & others being scattered by storms. Carthaginians, despite ongoing peace negotiations, decided to capture stranded Roman ships, towing them to Carthage. 1.8 1:30.

25 1012 Scipio sent envoys to Carthage to protest capture of Roman ships, but they attacked by Carthaginian quadriremes. envoys escaped, but truce was clearly broken. Scipio, despite his anger, chose not to punish Carthaginians, & instead prepared to resume operations as Hannibal's fleet approached. 1.8 1:30.

26 1013 In year following, Greek cities complained to Rome about Philip's aggression, & senate sent envoys to protest. fire & flood hit Rome, but food was plentiful. Quintus Fabius Maximus died at an advanced age, praised for his caution & wisdom in opposing Hannibal. New aediles & praetors elected. 1.9 1:35.

27 1014 The consuls M. Servilius & Tiberius Claudius drew lots for their provinces, with Claudius receiving Africa & Servilius receiving Etruria. Scipio was chosen by people to conduct war in Africa. P. Villius was sent to Sicily with 1,000 men & 20 warships, while M. Pomponius was sent to Rome with 1,500 men & 20 ships. 1.5 1:15.

28 1015 Rome & Carthage anxiously awaited final battle between Scipio & Hannibal. Romans feared Hannibal's unimpaired strength & his veterans, who had slain Roman commanders & worn spoils from their bodies. Carthaginians regretted seeking peace, fearing Scipio's resolve & past victories, including capturing Syphax & driving them from Spain & Italy. 2.3 1:55.

29 1016 Hannibal marched to Zama, 5 days from Carthage, upon learning of Roman occupation. Scipio showed captured scouts around camp, then released them to report to Hannibal. According to Valerius Antius, Hannibal was defeated, losing 12,000 killed & 1,700 taken prisoners, before requesting meeting with Scipio to discuss peace terms. 1.7 1:25.

30 1017 Hannibal & Scipio met to discuss peace terms. Hannibal acknowledged his past defeats, including 12,000 killed & 1,700 taken prisoners, & praised Scipio's victories. He proposed peace treaty, offering to relinquish Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, & all islands between Africa & Italy, & requested fair terms. 5.5 4:35.

31 1018 Roman Commander: "You, Hannibal, broke truce, & now you want to profit from dishonesty? Our wars in Sicily & Spain justified, & gods will guide this one too. I won't show you consideration after dragging you to Africa. Accept terms, including indemnity, or prepare for war." 1.7 1:25.

32 1019 Before battle, commanders rallied their troops, promising decisive victory that would determine fate of Rome & Carthage. They highlighted past successes, praised individual bravery, & used recent peace negotiations to fuel their soldiers' determination. Scipio predicted triumphant return home, his confidence inspiring his troops. 1.6 1:20.

33 1020 Scipio & Hannibal deployed their troops, with Scipio's men formed in intervals to accommodate Hannibal's 80 elephants. Hannibal's diverse army was motivated by various appeals, including pay, booty, hatred, & fear. battle began with clash of trumpets, causing some elephants to turn on their own troops, while others charged Roman lines. 2.6 2:10.

34 1021 The Roman infantry advanced, exposing Carthaginians' flanks. Romans' unified cheers & weight of arms pushed enemy back, while Carthaginians' diverse cries & lack of fighting strength led to disorganized retreat. Romans regrouped & recharged, gaining upper hand in battle. 2.3 1:55.

35 1022 Laelius & Masinissa's cavalry attack from behind, deciding battle. Over 20,000 Carthaginians & allies perish, & almost as many are captured. Romans secure 132 standards & elephants, losing 1,500 men. Hannibal escapes to Hadrumetum, later returning to Carthage, admitting defeat & advocating for peace. 1.6 1:20.

36 1023 Scipio storms enemy camp, securing plunder, & sails to Carthage, receiving delegation seeking peace. He delays, seeking to increase panic, & later defeats Numidian forces, killing 15,000 & capturing 1,200. He is reinforced by P. Lentulus with 50 warships & 100 transports. Octavius captures 72 standards. 2.1 1:45.

37 1024 The council stated peace conditions: Carthage would be free State, retaining territory & laws; return deserters & prisoners; deliver warships & elephants; pay 10,000 talents of silver over 50 years; provide hostages & restore Masinissa's possessions. Hannibal supported acceptance, citing necessity. 2.4 2:00.

38 1025 After envoys returned, Scipio instructed quaestors to inventory government property on transports. Carthage paid 25,000 pounds of silver & received 3-month armistice. Envoys went to Rome, accompanied by L. Veturius Philo, M. Marcius Ralla, & L. Scipio. Rumors of portents spread, including diminished sun, stone showers, & flooding. 1.9 1:35.

39 1026 Consul Tiberius Claudius faced violent storms & ship damage while sailing to Sardinia. He returned to Rome as private citizen after his term expired. Meanwhile, elections delayed due to weather, leaving Rome without curule magistrates. Various officials found guilty of misconduct, & games celebrated by aediles. 1.4 1:10.

40 1027 The Roman commissioners reported victorious end to war with Hannibal. senate met, & after elections, Cnaeus Cornelius Lentulus & P. Aelius Paetus made consuls. Lentulus sought Africa as his province, but senate decided to leave matter to Scipio, with consul commanding fleet & Scipio leading land campaign. 2.5 2:05.

41 1028Scipio's command was extended, retaining his armies in Africa. Legions reassigned: 2 to M. Valerius Falto in Bruttium, 2 to P. Aelius in Sicily, 1 to M. Fabius in Sardinia, & 2 to M. Servilius in Etruria. Consul was to select 50 ships from fleets in African & Sicilian waters. 1.2 1:00.

42 1029 The Macedonian embassy was received, denying responsibility for depredations & charging M. Aurelius with violating treaty rights. senate replied that King Philip was looking for war & had committed twofold breach of treaty. Carthaginian embassy, led by Hasdrubal, disavowed responsibility for war & urged peace. 3.4 2:50.

43 1030 The senate decreed that Scipio should make peace with Carthage, with terms agreed by 10 commissioners. Carthaginians requested to ransom 200 prisoners, & senate agreed. Fetials sent to Africa with sacred herbs to strike treaty. Peace was concluded, & Carthage delivered 4000 prisoners, warships, & elephants. 1.9 1:35.

44 1031 40 years after previous peace, Scipio concluded new treaty with Carthage. war had lasted 17 years, & Carthage was exhausted. Hannibal rebuked his countrymen for weeping over war indemnity, saying they should have wept when their arms & ships taken. Scipio rewarded Masinissa with Cirta & other cities. 2.1 1:45.

45 1032 Scipio sailed to Lilybaeum, then traveled through Italy, receiving honors from crowds of people. His triumphal procession in Rome was most brilliant ever, with 123,000 pounds of silver & 40 ases distributed to each soldier. He was first commander to be ennobled by name of conquered people. 1.3 1:05.

31 214 - 05 (539 - 48) 9
Rome & Macedon
49 85 1:10:50 9.44

1 1033 The author is relieved to have completed writing about Punic War, but notes that task of writing about Roman history seems to only get larger. war with Macedonia is next, notable for fame of its kings & extensive dominion over Europe & Asia. 1.5 1:15.

2 1034 Envoys from King Attalus & Rhodes reported Philip's attempts to gain Asia Minor. senate replied that they aware of situation. Meanwhile, 3 legates sent to Egypt to announce Hannibal's defeat & request Ptolemy's continued friendship. In Gaul, P. Aelius' force was defeated by Boii, with 7,000 men killed. 1.7 1:25.

3 1035 The senate prioritized Philip's actions & grievances. M. Valerius Laevinus was sent as propraetor to Macedonia with 38 ships. He met M. Aurelius, who informed him of Philip's forces & alliances. Aurelius warned that Romans needed to act decisively or Philip would become emboldened, like Pyrrhus before him. .9 :45.

4 1036 The senate assigned 10 commissioners to allot land to Scipio's veteran soldiers in Samnite & Apulian territory. commissioners included P. Servilius, Q. Caecilius Marcellus, & 8 others. elections resulted in P. Sulpicius Galba & C. Aurelius Cotta as consuls-elect, & 4 new praetors. Various games & festivals celebrated. 1 :50.

5 1037 In 551 years from Rome's foundation, consuls P. Sulpicius Galba & C. Aurelius began war with King Philip. On March 15, senate decreed sacrifices & prayer for prosperous war. Despatches from M. Aurelius & M. Valerius Laevinus & an Athenian embassy urged action against Philip. 1.4 1:10.

6 1038 P. Sulpicius proposed declaring war on Philip, King of Macedonia, but Assembly rejected it almost unanimously due to war fatigue. One tribune, Q. Baebius, criticized patricians for perpetuating wars, sparking anger in senate. consul was urged to call another meeting to reconsider proposal. .9 :45.

7 1039 Consul P. Sulpicius addressed Assembly, urging them to declare war on Philip, King of Macedonia. He reminded them of past wars, including Punic War, & warned that if they didn't act, Philip would invade Italy. He encouraged them to vote with gods' guidance, who had given favorable omens. 2.8 2:20.

8 1040 The Roman Assembly declared war on Philip, King of Macedonia. senate ordered prayers & supplications for 3 days. consul, P. Sulpicius, was instructed to raise 2 new legions & reenlist volunteers from Scipio's army. Other praetors received armies for their provinces, including 5,000 men for Gaul, Bruttium, Sicily, & Sardinia. 1.6 1:20.

9 1041 A deputation from King Ptolemy informed Rome that Athens sought his aid against Philip. senate thanked him & assured him of Rome's intention to protect its allies. Each deputy received 5000 ases. consul vowed Games & an offering to Jupiter's temple, but Pontifex Maximus delayed it due to funding concerns. 1.8 1:30.

10 1042 Rumors emerged of Gaulish uprising, led by Carthaginian general Hamilcar. Insubres, Cenomani, Boii, & Ligurian tribes sacked Placentia & threatened Cremona. Praetor Furius Purpureo, with small force, appealed to senate for aid, describing dire situation & enemy's superior strength. 1.2 1:00.

11 1043 The senate responded to Gaulish uprising by ordering consul C. Aurelius to muster his army at Ariminum & sending mission to Carthage & Numidia. They instructed commissioners to demand Carthage recall Hamilcar & surrender deserters, & to request 5,000 Numidian horse from Masinissa. 2.8 2:20.

12 1044 A despatch from Q. Minucius reported theft from treasury of Proserpine at Locri. senate ordered an enquiry & expiatory sacrifices. Portents reported: fiery sky, red sun, strange births, & hybrid animals. senate consulted Sacred Books & ordered ceremonies, including hymn sung by 27 maidens. 1.8 1:30.

13 1045 The consuls delayed their departure due to creditors demanding repayment of loans made during Punic War. senate proposed solution: creditors could purchase public land within 50 miles of Rome at nominal tax, & later opt for cash repayment when state could afford it. 1.4 1:10.

14 1046 P. Sulpicius sailed to Greece with 20 warships & 1,000 men, & sent C. Claudius Cento to raise siege of Athens. Philip, allied with Antiochus, sought to divide Egypt. Athens declared war on Philip after Acarnanians, supported by Macedonians, laid waste to Attica, following execution of 2 young Acarnanians for sacrilege. 1.8 1:30.

15 1047 King Attalus addressed Athenians in writing, urging them to join war against Philip. They unanimously agreed & honored Attalus & Rhodians with citizenship, golden crown, & new tribe named Attalis. However, Attalus failed to persuade Aetolians to join war, allowing Philip to regroup in Thrace. 1.6 1:20.

16 1048 Philip showed courage despite facing war with

Rome. He sent Philocles with 2,000 infantry & 200 cavalry to attack Athens, & himself captured Maronea, Aenos, & other cities with 2,000 men. Attalus & Rhodes failed to assist Abydos, sending only 300 men & one quadrireme, & later failed to provide aid despite raising hopes. 1 :50.

17 1049 Abydenes defended their city against Philip's attack, but when surrender seemed inevitable, they made desperate resolution. They gathered their valuables, shut up their families, & took an oath to kill them & themselves if necessary. They fought fiercely, but eventually surrendered after heavy losses. 1.8 1:30.

18 1050 M. Aemilius, Roman envoy, urged Philip to spare Abydos, but Philip refused. people of Abydos, believing they had been betrayed, killed themselves & their families. Philip was astonished & allowed 3 days for carnage to continue. Eventually, he occupied city & returned to his kingdom, resolved to war against Rome. 1.7 1:25.

19 1051 The envoys reported back to Rome on Carthage's response: Hamilcar was banished & his property confiscated, & 200,000 modii of wheat sent to Rome & Macedonia. Masinissa offered 2,000 horse, but only 1,000 accepted, & he sent 2,000,000 modii of wheat & barley to Macedonia. Vermina agreed to peace terms. .9 :35.

20 1052 L. Cornelius Lentulus returned from Spain & requested triumph, but senate only allowed an ovation due to his proconsul status. Despite tribune Tiberius Sempronius Longus' opposition, Lentulus celebrated his ovation, displaying 43,000 pounds of silver & 2450 pounds of gold, & gave each soldier 120 ases. .8 :40.

21 1053 L. Furius led his army to Cremona, where Gauls besieging. He delayed attacking, allowing Gauls to regroup. Next day, Romans formed line with allied troops in front & legions in reserve. Gauls attacked, but Romans extended their line & launched counterattack, killing over 35,000 Gauls, capturing 70 standards & 200 carts, & freeing 2,000 Roman prisoners. 2.2 1:50.

22 1054 The Roman victory in Gaul was met with 3 days of thanksgiving in

Rome. Romans & allies lost 2,000 men, mostly from right division. C. Aurelius took over army from L. Furius, while other consul wintered near Apollonia. C. Claudius arrived in Athens with 20 triremes, bringing comfort to allies. 1 :50.

23 1055 C. Claudius led surprise attack on Chalcis, capitalizing on lack of resistance. His troops scaled walls, broke down gate, & filled city with tumult. They killed many, including commandant Sopater, & plundered city, releasing prisoners & toppling king's statues before returning to Athens. 1.7 1:25.

24 1056 Philip marched on Chalcis with 5,000 infantry & 300 cavalry to avenge its destruction. Finding it in ruins, he proceeded to Athens, but his surprise attack failed. He launched an open assault on Dipylon gate with his infantry & cavalry, wounding many Athenians, but ultimately retreated to Cynosarges. 2.9 2:25.

25 1057 Philip marched to Eleusis, then Megara & Corinth, before appearing at Council of Achaeans in Argos. He offered to protect them from Nabis, but requested troops to garrison Oreus, Chalcis, & Corinth. Achaeans saw through his plan & refused, passing decree to raise an army against Nabis instead. 1.9 1:35.

26 1058 Philocles led 2,000 Thracians & Macedonians to ravage Athenian territory, but his ambush was detected & he joined Philip. Philip attempted to take Eleusis & Piraeus, but was repelled. He then devastated Attica, destroying temples & statues, & breaking stone blocks to prevent impressive ruins. 1.8 1:30.

27 1059 L. Apustius led Roman force to ravage Macedon, capturing Corrhagum, Gerrunium, & Orgessus. He took Antipatrea by assault, killing men & enslaving rest. Codrion & Cnidus surrendered without resistance. On his return, his rear was attacked by Athenagoras, but he repelled attack & returned safely to consul. 1.2 1:00.

28 1060 The Roman consul received visits from various princes & leaders, including Pleuratus, Amynander, & Bato, offering help against Macedonia. He accepted Dardanians' & Pleuratus' aid & asked Amynander to rally Aetolians. Envoys sent to Attalus & Rhodes to join war effort. Philip prepared for war, stationing his son Perseus in Pelagonia & destroying Sciathos & Peparethos to prevent Roman plunder. 1 :50.

29 1061 The Macedonian envoys addressed Aetolian League, urging them to maintain their peace treaty with Philip. They warned that Romans would exploit them, citing examples of Roman conquests in Sicily & Italy, & emphasizing that Greeks & foreigners are natural enemies. 3.1 :50.

30 1062 The Athenians addressed Aetolian League, condemning Philip's brutal destruction of their fields, sepulchres, & temples. They appealed to Aetolians to join war against Philip, under leadership of gods & Romans, to prevent similar devastation in Aetolia & rest of Greece. 1.7 1:25.

31 1063 The Roman legate defended Rome's actions, admitting some wrongdoing but citing provocation & just cause. He referenced Regium, Capua, & Syracuse, stating that Rome's actions justified & even benevolent. He then turned to Philip's crimes, urging Aetolians to join Rome against him, promising friendship & support. 3.5 2:55.

32 1064 The Roman legate's speech swayed Aetolians, but Damocritus, chief magistrate, refused to take side, citing need for careful deliberation. He proposed decree allowing him to summon council to discuss war & peace, & decision was adjourned, leaving Aetolians free to join either side. 1 :50.

33 1065 Philip prepared for war, gathering his fleet at Demetrias & leading his land forces in person. Roman consul marched through Dessaretii, capturing towns & gathering supplies. Both sides sent out cavalry to reconnoitre, leading to fierce but inconclusive battle. Deserters eventually revealed location of each other's camps. 1.9 1:35.

34 1066 Philip honored his dead soldiers, but gruesome wounds inflicted by Spanish sword filled his men with horror & apprehension. He recalled his son & troops from Pelagonia, augmenting his forces to 20,000 infantry & 4,000 cavalry. He encamped near Athacus, admiring Roman camp, & waited 2 days before consul led out his forces for battle. 1.4 1:10.

35 1067 Philip sent 400 Trallians, 300 Cretan infantry, & 300 cavalry to challenge Roman cavalry. Romans responded with velites & 2 squadrons of cavalry. Roman attack was fierce & sustained, overwhelming Philip's troops, who were unaccustomed to stationary combat. They fled back to their camp, unable to sustain conflict. 1.2 1:00.

36 1068 Philip's cavalry & light-armed troops engaged Romans, but an ambush failed due to premature action. Romans, led by consul, deployed elephants & taunted Philip's troops, who remained within their lines. Romans foraged at Ottolobum, 8 miles away, & Philip's cavalry attacked, killing many & blocking roads, causing chaos in Roman camp. 1.9 1:35.

37 1069 The consul led legions against Macedonians, & cavalry came to rescue. Macedonians initially had advantage, but their pursuit became disordered & they repelled by Roman cohorts. Many killed or fled, including Philip, who was thrown from his horse but escaped with help. 1.7 1:25.

38 1070 Some criticized Philip's rashness & consul's lack of energy. Philip was advised to wait, as Romans would soon run out of food, while consul was urged to attack Macedonian camp. However, both leaders' decisions understandable given circumstances, & Philip's deception allowed him to retreat safely. 1.4 1:10.

39 1071 Philip, aware of Roman consul's plans, retreated to Bryanium & then to narrow pass, where he barricaded road to prevent Romans from advancing. Macedonians, Thracians, & Cretans attempted to defend pass but ultimately defeated by Romans, who formed shield-roof & forced their way through. 2.2 1:50.

40 1072 The Roman consul conquered Eordaea, Elimia, & Dassaretia, taking Celetrum & Pelion without battle. He freed citizens & left garrison in Pelion, strategic base for operations against Macedonia. Philip was distracted by wars with Aetolians, Athamanians, Dardanians, & Illyrians, & sent Athenagoras to harass Dardanians. 1.5 1:15.

41 1073 Damocritus & Aetolians, joined by Amynander, took Cercinium (slaughtering many) & Cyretiae, & accepted Maloea's surrender. They then advanced into Thessaly, seeking plunder. Amynander, fearing their recklessness, fortified separate position. Philip suddenly appeared, & Aetolians, in disarray, routed by his cavalry, losing 600 men. 2 1:40.

42 1074 Philip's troops, tired from their rapid march, regrouped & prepared for battle. Aetolians, despite their initial courage, deserted their posts & fled to Athamanian camp as Macedonians advanced. Philip's troops plundered Aetolian camp, & Aetolians fled in disarray, with Amynander leading them to safety in Aetolia. 1.7 1:25.

43 1075 Athenagoras attacked Dardanians, causing confusion & harassment, but no decisive victory. Philip's cavalry exploited terrain, wounding many, but taking no prisoners. Meanwhile, Scopas recruited 6,000 infantry & 500 cavalry from Aetolia for Ptolemy, depleting Aetolia's forces, but Damocritus retained some troops, possibly due to patriotism or enmity towards Scopas. 1.2 1:00.

44 1076 The Athenians, emboldened by arrival of L. Apustius' fleet & Attalus, unleashed their rage against Philip, decreeing destruction of his statues, abolition of festivals, & curses on him, his family, & Macedonians. They invoked solemn curses & encouraged measures to brand him with ignominy. 1.5 1:15.

45 1077 Attalus & Romans captured Andros, allowing citizens to surrender & depart. They then sailed to Cythnos, Prasiae, & Geraestus, joined by Issaeans. After ravaging Carystian country, they reached Icus, Sciathos, & Cassandrea, where they repelled. They later took Acanthus by assault & returned to Sciathus & Euboea. 2.6 2:10.

46 1078 Attalus & Romans discussed war strategy with Aetolians, but refused to supply troops. They then attacked Oreus, with Romans targeting citadel & Attalus city wall. After siege, Romans broke through & captured citadel, while Attalus entered city, leading to surrender of garrison. 2.6 2:10.

47 1079 The fleets sailed back to Piraeus & Corcyra due to impending winter storms. Atticus remained for Eleusinian Mysteries & then withdrew into Asia. consul C. Aurelius found war already concluded & sent praetor into Etruria, later plundering enemy's country without gaining much glory. 1 :50.

48 1080 The senate debated L. Furius' request for triumph, with some supporting him due to his services & personal grounds, while others argued that he had quit his province without waiting for consul, contrary to precedent. Some argued that senate should only consider his success & relief of colonies. 2 1:40.

49 1081 L. Furius celebrated triumph over Gauls, bringing 320,000 ases & 100,500 pounds of silver into treasury. C. Cornelius Cethegus routed large army in Spain, killing 15,000 & taking 78 standards. Provisions cheap, & various Games celebrated. New consuls & praetors elected, & funeral Games exhibited. 3.4 2:50.

32 200 (553)
2nd Macedonian War
40 70.8 :59 70.8

1 1083 The consuls & praetors took office, with L. Lentulus receiving Italy & P. Villius receiving Macedonia. Praetors assigned to various jurisdictions. 2 former praetors had their commands extended. Various portents reported, including lightning strikes on gates, walls, & temples, & unusual animal births. 1.9 1:35.

2 1084 Carthage paid first war indemnity installment, but silver was debased, requiring additional payment. Hostages returned, with promises of more if obligations met. Carthaginian hostages relocated from Norba to Signia & Ferentinum. Gades successfully requested no prefect, while Narnia received commissioners to address colonist issues. 1 :50.

3 1085 Consul P. Villius faced mutiny in Macedonia among 2,000 troops transferred from Africa, who claimed they forced to serve without consent. They demanded discharge, citing years of service & hardships. Villius offered to consider their request if they obeyed orders & refrained from mutiny. 1 :50.

4 1086 Philip's siege of Thaumaci was thwarted by arrival of Aetolians led by Archidamus, who made constant sorties & attacked Macedonian outposts & siege-works. city's elevated position & precipitous sides made capture difficult, & Philip withdrew to winter quarters, abandoning siege. 1 :50.

5 1087 Philip, anxious about war, secured his alliances & prepared for battle. He renewed oath of fidelity with Achaeans, restored cities to them & Megalopolitans, & strengthened his hold on Macedon by imprisoning unpopular Heraclides. He then marched to Chaonia, occupying strategic positions & fortifying his camp. 2 1:40.

6 1088 The consul sailed to mainland Greece, marching towards enemy. He considered forcing pass or taking longer route. Villius attacked, crossing river, routing king's army, killing 12,000, taking 2,200 prisoners, & capturing standards & horses. However, most writers deemed this feat unremarkable. 1.2 1:00.

7 1089 In Rome, L. Lentulus conducted election of censors, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus & P. Aelius Paetus. L. Manlius Acidinus returned from Spain with 1,200 pounds of silver & 30 pounds of gold. In Gaul, Cn. Baebius lost 6,700 men. New consuls elected: Sex. Aelius Paetus & T. Quinctius Flamininus.

8 1090 The consuls, Sex. Aelius Paetus & T. Quinctius Flamininus, assigned provinces by ballot: Italy to Aelius, Macedonia to Quinctius. Praetors received jurisdictions: L. Cornelius Merula (City), M. Claudius (Sicily), M. Porcius (Sardinia), C. Helvius (Gaul). Troops levied, & message from Attalus was received, requesting aid against Antiochus. 2.2 1:50.

9 1091 T. Quinctius, consul, raised troops, prioritizing veterans from Spain & Africa. Portents delayed his departure, but he eventually left for Macedonia with 8,000 infantry & 800 cavalry. He considered attacking Philip's lines or circling through Dessaretii & Lyncus, opting for former to prevent Philip's escape. 1.9 1:35.

10 1092 Philip sought peace through Epirote mediation. consul demanded withdrawal of garrisons, restoration of plundered cities, & compensation. Philip refused to give up inherited cities, offering arbitration instead. consul rejected this, citing Philip's aggression. Skirmishes ensued, with Romans following Macedonians onto difficult terrain. 1.7 1:25.

11 1093 A shepherd offered to lead Roman party through secret route to attack Philip's camp from above. consul, skeptical but trusting Charopus' vouching, sent 4,000 infantry & 300 cavalry with tribune to follow guide. They marched by night, promising large reward if successful. 1.5 1:15.

12 1094 The Roman detachment signaled from height, & consul attacked camp. Macedonians fought bravely but retreated to strong positions. Romans struggled on difficult terrain, but Macedonians' rear was attacked, causing panic. king fled, & his army rallied in Thessaly, losing only 2,000 men. 1.7 1:25.

13 1095 Philip's army retreated to Pyrrhus' Camp, then to Lycnon range, where they remained for several days. They marched to Tricca, then devastated Phacium, Iresiae, Euhydrium, Eretria, & Palaepharsalus. Aetolians ravaged Thessaly, taking Cymene, Angea, Acharrae, & Cyphaera, & plundering several villages. 2 1:40.

14 1096 Amynander & Athamanians, after hearing of Roman victory, attacked Gomphi with small detachment borrowed from consul. They captured Phaeca & Gomphi, leading to surrender of other Thessalian cities. consul marched into Epirus, showing clemency to Epirotes, & prepared to advance into Thessaly with Amynander's troops as guides. 1.3 1:05.

15 1097 The Romans attacked Phalorium, Thessalian city garrisoned by 2,000 Macedonians. After relentless siege, city fell, & nearby Metropolis & Cierium surrendered. Romans then marched on Aeginium, but deemed it too strong & instead headed to Gomphi. They later replenished their supplies at Ambracia & set their sights on Atrax. 1.2 1:00.

16 1098 L. Quinctius sailed to Corcyra with 2 quinqueremes, then to Malea & Piraeus, taking over ships left by L. Apustius. Attalus & Agesimbrotus joined forces off Andros with 23 quinqueremes & 20 decked ships. They attacked Eretria, which surrendered after fierce siege, yielding many artworks & treasures. 2.1 1:45.

17 1099 The Romans attacked Carystus, which surrendered, & then Cenchreae. Meanwhile, consul's siege of another city was unexpectedly difficult. Macedonian garrison formed phalanx, repelling Romans. consul used movable tower, but narrow space & long spears gave enemy an advantage, & Romans struggled to break through. 2.3 1:55.

18 1100 The consul, frustrated by siege's progress, recognized need for new strategy. He abandoned siege & sought suitable winter base, finding Anticyra in Phocis to be most suitable. He captured nearby cities, including Phanotea, Ambrysus, Hyampolis, & Daulis, using various tactics to overcome their defenses. 1.2 1:00.

19 1101 The Roman consul sought to persuade Achaeans to abandon their alliance with Philip & join

Rome. Envoys from Rome, Attalus, Rhodes, & Athens addressed Achaean council at Sicyon, presenting their cases. Achaeans torn between their fears of Nabis, Rome, & Philip's cruelty, & undecided on course of action. 1.7 1:25.

20 1102 The Achaean council gathered again, but no one spoke up despite president's urging. Aristaenus appealed for discussion, noting irony that they debated passionately in private but remained silent in council. His words fell flat, & assembly remained silent, with no one willing to take stance. 1.3 1:05.

21 1103 Aristaenus urged Achaeans to consider speeches of envoys. He noted that Romans, Rhodians, & Attalus asked for their alliance, while Philip requested their support. Aristaenus argued that Romans' confidence came from their successes, while Philip's demands weak due to his defeats. He warned Achaeans to choose wisely, as opportunity to ally with Rome would not last forever. 6.9 5:45.

22 1104 The Achaean council debated fiercely, with some supporting an alliance with Rome & others opposing it. damiurgi divided, with 5 on each side. After emotional appeal from Risias, his son Memnon switched sides, & resolution passed with almost all states approving. Some representatives from Dymae, Megalopolis, & Argos withdrew, citing their obligations to Philip. 1.9 1:35.

23 1105 The Achaeans voted to ally with Attalus & Rhodes, & sent representatives to L. Quinctius. They besieged Corinth, but Macedonians & Greeks defended it fiercely. Italian deserters fought desperately, knowing they'd face punishment if Romans won. siege was eventually abandoned, & troops sailed away. 2.2 1:50.

24 1106 The Roman consul besieged Elatea, inviting citizens to surrender, but they refused, citing king's troops. Romans breached wall, & cohort entered city. defenders fled to citadel, which Romans later captured, promising to spare lives & restore freedom to Elateans. 1.1 :55.

25 1107 Philocles' arrival in Achaia led to Argos' betrayal, as leaders & citizens sided with Philip. 500 Achaeans under Aenesidemus defended city, but Philocles' forces & Argive supporters overwhelmed them. Aenesidemus was killed, & Philocles took city, leaving 2 key cities, Argos & Corinth, in Philip's control. 1.9 1:35.

26 1108 In Gaul, consul Sex. Aelius accomplished little, but in Italy, slave uprising was thwarted when 2 slaves informed City praetor, L. Cornelius, of plot to attack Setia & other districts during Games. conspiracy was crushed, & 2,000 slaves punished. Rewards given to informants. 2.4 2:00.

27 1109 In Rome, golden crown weighing 246 pounds was deposited in Capitol by King Attalus' delegation. Masinissa sent 200 mounted men, elephants, & 200,000 modii of wheat to army in Greece. New consuls & 6 praetors elected, including L. Manlius Volso & C. Sempronius Tuditanus. Roman Games celebrated four times. 1 :50.

28 1110 The new consuls & praetors assigned their provinces. tribunes L. Oppius & Q. Fulvius objected to consuls ballotting for Italy & Macedonia, citing ongoing war with Macedonia. senate decreed that both consuls would administer Italy, & Quinctius would continue commanding in Macedonia with reinforcements: 6,000 foot, 300 horse, & 3,000 seamen. 1.8 1:30.

29 1111 Portents expiated before consuls & praetors left for their provinces. 5 colonies founded with 300 households each, & 3 commissioners appointed. consuls then left for Gaul, where they conquered several Ligurian towns & communities, with 20,000 men & fortified towns surrendering, except for Boii & Ilvates. 1.2 1:00.

30 1112 The Boii & Insubres disagreed on whether to unite against Romans. Boii protected their country, while Insubres & Cenomani positioned themselves on Mincius river. Romans defeated Insubres, killing 35,000 & capturing 5,200, including Hamilcar, Carthaginian general. 1.8 1:30.

31 1113 Minucius, consul, plundered Boii's country, but they abandoned their camp & dispersed to defend their villages after hearing of Insubrians' defeat. He burnt Clastidium & targeted Ilvates, who surrendered upon learning of Boii's discouragement. senate & Assembly celebrated with four-day thanksgiving. .9 :35.

32 1114 T. Quinctius & Philip met for conference on shore of Maliac Gulf. Philip refused to step ashore, citing mistrust of Aetolians. Quinctius reassured him, but Philip remained cautious, noting unequal rewards of treachery & difficulty of replacing king versus magistrate. 2.1 1:45.

33 1115 The Roman commander outlined peace terms: Philip must withdraw from Greek cities, return prisoners & deserters, & restore Illyrian & Egyptian territories. Allies added demands, including restoration of ships, temples, & cities. An Aetolian, Alexander, criticized Philip's deceptive tactics & destruction of cities, citing examples of his treachery. 2.4 2:00.

34 1116 Philip, stung by Alexander's speech, defended himself against Aetolian & Roman demands. He mocked Phaeneas' vision, justified his actions in Cius & Lysimachia, & offered to restore Peraea & ships to Attalus & Rhodians. He rebuked Achaeans for their faithlessness, promising to restore Argos & discuss Corinth's status. 2.2 1:50.

35 1117 Philip delayed conference, then requested private meeting with Quinctius, excluding allies. They discussed terms, with Philip offering to cede Illyrian coast, return ships & prisoners, & restore some cities. However, none of parties satisfied, demanding Philip withdraw from all of Greece to avoid future conflicts. 1.7 1:25.

36 1118 Philip requested delay to send ambassadors to Roman senate, but council suspected he wanted to gain time to gather forces. Quinctius proposed allowing him time, as winter was approaching, & no agreement would be valid without senate ratification. two-month armistice was agreed upon, with conditions. 1.3 1:05.

37 1119 The allies' delegates spoke to Roman senate, criticizing Philip & describing strategic importance of Demetrias, Chalcis, & Corinth. Philip's envoys asked if he would evacuate these cities, but they lacked instructions. negotiations ended, leaving Quinctius to decide on war or peace. .8 :40.

38 1120 Philip, preparing for war, sought to secure Argos by offering it to Nabis, tyrant of Lacedaemon, in exchange for his support. Nabis agreed, occupying city by night & imposing harsh measures on its citizens, including confiscation of property, fines, & torture. He also introduced measures to cancel debts & divide land, inciting lower classes against aristocracy. 1.4 1:10.

39 1121 Nabis, tyrant of Lacedaemon, occupied Argos & sent emissaries to Quinctius & Attalus. Quinctius agreed to meet Nabis, but refused to enter Argos, instead choosing Mycenica as conference site. Nabis arrived armed, while Quinctius & Attalus unarmed. They discussed terms, with Romans demanding Nabis cease hostilities against Achaeans & assist against Philip. 1.6 1:20.

40 1122 Attalus & Nabis discussed Argos, with Attalus demanding meeting of Argive Assembly to determine truth. Nabis refused to withdraw his troops, & discussion ended without resolution. Quinctius proceeded to Corinth, where Philocles hinted at surrendering city. Attalus gifted Sicyon with land, silver, & corn, while Nabis' wife plundered women of Argos. 1.5 1:15.

33 200 - 196 (553 - 7) 4
2nd Macedonian War - Cont.
49 76.4 1:03:40 19.1

1 1123 In spring, Quinctius sought to make Boeotia Roman dependency. He marched to Thebes with Attalus & deputations, accompanied by single maniple & 2,000 hastati at distance. Meeting Antiphilus, Boeotian captain-general, he slowed his pace, allowing hastati to catch up, causing dismay among townsfolk. 1.1 1:05.

2 1124 Attalus spoke in Boeotian council, recounting his services, but fell ill & was removed. Aristaenus & Quinctius spoke, urging alliance with

Rome. Dicaearchus' motion was passed unanimously, & Boeotia became Roman ally. Quinctius left Attalus in Thebes & returned to Elatia, focusing on ending war with Philip. 1.1 :55.

3 1125 Philip, facing lack of men, enrolled youths of 16 & recalled veterans. He drilled his army at Dium, while Quinctius marched to Thermopylae, waiting for Aetolian reinforcements. Phaeneas arrived with 600 infantry & 400 cavalry, followed by 500 Cretans, 300 Apollonians, & 1,200 Athamanian infantry under Amynander. 1.5 1:15.

4 1126 Philip addressed his soldiers, citing repulse of Romans at Atrax & phalanx's unbeaten record on favorable ground. His army consisted of 16,000 phalanx soldiers, 2,000 peltasts, 2,000 Thracians, 2,000 Trallians, 1,500 hired troops, & 2,000 cavalry. Roman army was similar in size, but superior in cavalry. .7 :35.

5 1127 Quinctius' attempt to capture Thebes in Phthiotis failed, & he turned his attention to preparing for battle against Philip in Thessaly. Roman soldiers gathered stakes to build stockade, using light, forked branches that easy to carry & difficult to dismantle, unlike larger trees used by Macedonians & Greeks. 1.7 1:25.

6 1128 Quinctius & Philip's armies marched towards each other, with skirmishes near Pherae & cavalry battle where Philip's troops routed. Both armies moved to Scotusa, encamping in nearby towns, but heavy clouds & darkness prevented further action on 3rd day, keeping Romans in their camp. 1.7 1:25.

7 1129 Philip's army marched in thick fog, reaching Cynoscephalae, where they left strong force. Quinctius sent 10 squadrons & 1,000 velites to reconnoitre. Romans initially overpowered, but reinforcement of 500 cavalry & 2,000 infantry restored battle. Philip sent Athenagoras with foreign contingent & cavalry, forcing Romans to retreat. 1.9 1:35.

8 1130 Philip's army was driven into battle by false reports of Roman flight. Quinctius led Roman left wing against enemy, reminding them of past victories. Philip's phalanx attacked, but his men fled back in disorder. Philip reformed his line, halving front & doubling depth, to prevent breakage. 2.2 1:50.

9 1131 The Romans & Macedonians clashed, with both sides shouting simultaneously. king's higher ground gave him an advantage on right, but Roman left was in disarray. Quinctius sent elephants against unformed Macedonian troops, causing them to flee, & tribune attacked enemy's right from behind, leading to rout. 1.4 1:10.

10 1132 Philip fled after seeing his left wing in disarray. Quinctius paused pursuit when Macedonians raised their spears, signaling surrender. However, Roman soldiers attacked, causing Macedonians to flee. 8,000 Macedonians died, 5,000 captured, & 700 Romans fell. Philip escaped to Gomphi, leaving largely plundered camp. 1.2 1:00.

11 1133 Philip fled to Macedonia after battle, sending herald to request an armistice & peace negotiations. Quinctius granted both requests, offending Aetolians, who felt excluded from his counsel & suspected him of seeking personal gain. Quinctius aimed to humble Aetolians, recognizing their growing power in Greece. 1.6 1:20.

12 1134 Quinctius consulted his allies on peace terms with Philip. Amynander advocated for terms that would maintain Greece's liberty, while Aetolians demanded Philip's death or exile. Quinctius argued that Rome's policy was to show mercy to conquered & that destroying Macedonia would invite greater dangers from neighboring tribes. 1.7 1:25.

13 1135 Philip met with Quinctius & allies, agreeing to previous demands & leaving other terms to senate's decision. Phaeneas requested return of Larisa, Cremaste, Echinus, & Phthiotic Thebes, leading to dispute over Thebes. Philip agreed to provide hostages, including his son Demetrius, & pay an indemnity of 200 talents. 1.9 1:35.

14 1136 The Achaeans, led by Nicostratus, defeated Androsthenes' forces at Corinth, despite being outnumbered (5,000 vs 6,000). Achaeans had 2000 infantry, 200 cavalry, & additional troops from surrounding cities. They launched surprise attack, having gathered at Apelaurus, & awaited scouting reports to proceed. 1.5 1:15.

15 1137 Androsthenes' forces defeated by Nicostratus' army at Nemea stream. Macedonians fought hard, but eventually fled. Achaeans pursued, killing 1,500 & capturing 300. plundering parties around Sicyon also attacked, resulting in further slaughter. Achaia was finally freed from fear. 2 1:40.

16 1138 Acarnania's leaders, induced by Quinctius, considered an alliance with Rome, but decision was met with resistance. 2 men, Androcles & Echedemus, influenced by Philip, had authors of decree condemned for treason. However, condemned men successfully appealed to people, & decrees rescinded. 1.5 1:15.

17 1139 Flamininus sailed to Leucas with siege engines, hoping to intimidate defenders. city was vulnerable due to its location, with narrow isthmus connecting it to Acarnania. Despite Romans' advantage, defenders fought bravely, repairing walls & making sorties. Italian refugees admitted Roman soldiers, leading to city's capture. 1.8 1:30.

18 1140 The Rhodians, led by Pausistratus, sought to reclaim Peraea from Philip. They defeated Dinocrates' forces, with 3,000 infantry & 100 cavalry on each side. Achaeans broke through Agrianians, & Macedonians fled. Rhodians pursued, but failed to take Stratonice, which was later surrendered by Antiochus. 2.6 2:10.

19 1141 Philip, with 6000 infantry & 500 cavalry, defeated Dardanians near Stobi, killing many & driving them back. This success boosted his men's spirits. Meanwhile, Antiochus, with large army & fleet, aimed to conquer coastal cities & aid Philip, posing new threat to Rome. 1.7 1:25.

20 1142 The Rhodians bravely opposed Antiochus, warning him not to sail beyond Chelidonia, lest he aid Philip against

Rome. Antiochus, besieging Coracesium, received their envoys & promised friendly intentions, citing his embassy to

Rome. After news of Philip's defeat at Cynoscephalae, Rhodes focused on defending allied states against Antiochus. 1.9 1:35.

21 1143 Attalus, king of Pergamum, died at 72 after 44-year reign. He had defeated Gauls, ruled justly, & left secure kingdom. Meanwhile, in Further Spain, tribal chiefs Culchas & Luxinius rebelled, supported by various cities & tribes, prompting senate to plan military action. 1.4 1:10.

22 1144 Consuls Q. Minucius & C. Cornelius requested joint triumph, but tribunes opposed, arguing their achievements unequal. C. Cornelius' successes acknowledged, but Q. Minucius' actions in Liguria & Gaul deemed insignificant. consuls eventually submitted separate requests, ending two-day debate. 1.3 1:05.

23 1145 C. Cethegus triumphed, with many spoils & captives, including possibly Hamilcar. He gave each soldier 70 ases & double to centurions & horsemen. Q. Minucius triumphed on Alban Mount, with 254,000 ases & 53,200 denarii, giving similar bonuses to his soldiers. 1.2 1:00.

24 1146 New consuls & praetors elected. Despatches from T. Quinctius reported victory over Philip in Thessaly, prompting 5-day thanksgiving. Delegation from Philip arrived, & senate appointed 10 commissioners to advise on peace terms. Cosa's inhabitants requested colonist reinforcements, & 1,000 new colonists approved. 1.2 1:00.

25 1147 The Roman Games & Plebeian Games celebrated with great enthusiasm. new consuls, L. Furius & M. Claudius Marcellus, sought to allot Macedonia as their province, but senate hesitated due to concerns about Philip's intentions. plebs voted in favor of peace, & Italy was assigned to both consuls. 1.6 1:20.

26 1148 Praetors balloted for provinces: L. Apustius Fullo (City), M. Acilius Glabrio (citizen-alien cases), Q. Fabius Buteo (Further Spain), Q. Minucius Thermus (Hither Spain), C. Laelius (Sicily), Tiberius Sempronius Longus (Sardinia). Consuls furnished 1 legion each, 4,000 allied infantry, & 300 cavalry to Spain. Portents expiated with sacrifices. 1.1 :55.

27 1149 Cneius Cornelius Blasio entered Rome in ovation, with 15 pounds of gold, 20,000 of silver, & 34,500 silver denarii. L. Stertinius brought 50,000 pounds of silver to public treasury & built gateways in Forum Boarium & Circus Maximus, with gilded statues. T. Quinctius granted Boeotians' request, restoring their countrymen who fought for Philip. 1.4 1:10.

28 1150 Brachylles was assassinated by 6 men, including 3 Italians & 3 Aetolians. Zeuxippus was suspected of instigating crime, but he publicly denied involvement. Despite his denial, he fled to Tanagra, fearing his own conscience. slave who had acted as intermediary revealed truth, leading to execution of Pisistratus & others. 2.5 2:05.

29 1151 The murder of Brachylles sparked hatred against Romans in Thebes & Boeotia. Guerrilla warfare & assassinations ensued, with 500 soldiers killed. Quinctius demanded guilty parties & levied 500-talent fine, but Boeotians refused. After devastation & mediation by Athens & Achaia, peace was granted for 30 talents & surrender of guilty. 2 1:40.

30 1152 Philip was granted peace on condition that he release Greek communities in Europe & Asia, withdraw garrisons from certain cities, & pay 1,000-talent indemnity (half upfront, rest in 10 annual instalments). His army was capped at 5,000 men, with no elephants or war beyond borders. 2 1:40.

31 1153 The Aetolians criticized peace terms, arguing that some cities left vulnerable to Roman appropriation. senate's decree declared most cities free, but left Corinth, Chalcis, & Demetrias subject to Roman determination. Quinctius advocated for complete Greek freedom, but commissioners decided to retain garrisons in strategic cities. 1.7 1:25.

32 1154 At Isthmian Games, herald announced that Roman Senate & T. Quinctius had decreed freedom for various Greek states, including Corinth, Phocis, Locri, Euboea, Magnesia, Thessalia, Perrhaebia, & Achaea. crowd erupted in joy, prioritizing liberty above all else. 1.7 1:25.

33 1155 The crowd enthusiastically celebrated Quinctius' declaration of Greek freedom, showering him with garlands & ribbons. For days, they praised Rome's selfless act, crossing seas to bring liberty & justice to distant lands, showcasing exceptional courage, good fortune, & daring spirit. .9 :45.

34 1156 After Isthmian Games, Quinctius & commissioners met with ambassadors from various monarchs & states. Antiochus was warned to evacuate Asian cities & respect Greek freedom. commissioners granted freedom to several cities & states, including Orestis, Magnetes, Perrhaebians, Dolopians, Thessalians, & others, & made territorial adjustments. 1.5 1:15.

35 1157 The commissioners dispersed to liberate cities in their assigned districts. Cornelius met with Philip, urging him to establish friendly relations with Rome to avoid suspicion. He then addressed Pylaic council, encouraging Aetolians to remain loyal to Rome, & persuaded them to send an embassy to resolve grievances. 1.4 1:10.

36 1158 3000 Romans killed by Boii in battle in their territory. Several high-ranking Romans killed, including Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, M. Junius Silanus, M. Ogulnius, & P. Claudius. Marcellus' army recovers & defeats Boii Gauls in subsequent battle, killing over 40,000 men, capturing 801 standards & 732 wagons, & taking large number of gold chains. Romans storm & plunder Gaulish camp & capture town of Comum. Twenty-eight fortified places surrender to consul. 2.2 1:50.

37 1159 The consul L. Furius Purpurio invaded Boian territory, then joined Marcellus, & together they plundered country, capturing Felsina & other fortified positions. They defeated Ligurians & Boii, killing almost all 40,000 enemy, & celebrated triumph in Rome, distributing 320,000 ases & 234,000 silver denarii. 1.7 1:25.

38 1160 Antiochus sought to subdue Asia's cities, except Smyrna & Lampsacus, which asserted their freedom. He sent forces to invest Smyrna & Lampsacus, & later sailed to Hellespont, capturing Madytos & inspiring fear in Sestos & other cities, which surrendered voluntarily. He then restored Lysimachia, rebuilding houses & walls. 2.1 1:45.

39 1161 Roman commissioners, including L. Cornelius, P. Lentulus, P. Villius, & L. Terentius, met with Antiochus in Lysimachia to discuss his actions in Asia. They expressed senate's disapproval, demanding restoration of cities to Ptolemy & criticizing Antiochus' expansion into Europe as an act of war against Rome. 1.2 1:00.

40 1162 Antiochus responded, expressing surprise at Roman scrutiny of his actions in Asia, while they expand their own empire. He claimed friendly relations with Ptolemy, & that his actions in Europe not hostile towards

Rome. He asserted his right to reclaim territories once held by Lysimachus & Seleucus. 1 :50.

41 1163 Rumor of Ptolemy's death halted negotiations between Antiochus & Roman commissioners. Antiochus sailed to Ephesus, then to Patarae, where he learned Ptolemy was alive. He continued to Cyprus, but mutiny & storm destroyed much of his fleet, killing many sailors, soldiers, & friends. He returned to Seleucia, then Antioch, for winter. 1.5 1:15.

42 1164 3 epulones appointed, including C. Licinius Lucullus. dispute arose between priests & quaestors over repayment of war contributions. 2 pontiffs died & replaced by M. Marcellus & L. Valerius Flaccus. New consuls & praetors elected, & aediles sold wheat to people at low price. Games celebrated with splendor. 1.5 1:15.

43 1165 On March 15, consuls Cato & Valerius allocated provinces. Cato drew Spain with 2 legions, 15,000 infantry, 800 cavalry, & 20 ships. Valerius received Italy with 2 legions. Praetors assigned provinces: Fabricius (City), Atinius (aliens), Manlius (Sicily), Claudius (Further Spain), Laeca (Pisae), & Manlius (Hither Spain). 1.3 1:05.

44 1166 A Sacred Spring was proclaimed, & C. Claudius Pulcher was appointed augur. despatch from Q. Minucius reported victory in Spain, with 12,000 enemy casualties. senate focused on impending war with Antiochus, who had landed in Europe with large fleet & army, & threat of Nabis in Greece. 1.6 1:20.

45 1167 The senate prioritized threat of Nabis over Antiochus, leaving T. Quinctius to decide how to handle tyrant. They more concerned about Hannibal & Carthage's potential actions in war with Antiochus, citing Hannibal's untamable nature & rumors of secret communications with king. 1.2 1:00.

46 1168 In Carthage, order of judges held supreme power, abusing their lifetime tenure to dominate citizens' property, reputation, & life. Hannibal, as presiding magistrate, challenged their despotism, proposing law to limit their power by making them elected annually, & exposing fraudulent use of public revenues. 1.4 1:10.

47 1169 Hannibal exposed embezzlement in Carthage, recovering funds to meet Roman demands without taxing citizens. His enemies, including Romans, sought his downfall. Roman delegation arrived, pretending to resolve issues between Masinissa & Carthage, but Hannibal knew he was target & prepared to flee, escaping at night. 1.6 1:20.

48 1170 Hannibal fled Africa, landing in Cercina, where he pretended to be on mission to Tyre. He hosted lavish feast, got ship captains drunk, & escaped unnoticed. next day, captains discovered his trick, & news of his flight spread, causing an uproar in Carthage. 1.6 1:20.

49 1171 Roman delegates accused Hannibal of instigating war with Philip & plotting with Antiochus & Aetolians. Carthage agreed to punish him. Hannibal fled to Tyre, then Antiochia, where he met Antiochus' son, & finally Ephesus, where he joined king, who was considering war with Rome. 1.1 :55.

34 196 (557)
Close of Macedonian War
62 88.6 1:13:50 88.6

1 1172 A proposal to repeal Oppian Law, which restricted women's luxuries, sparked fierce debate. Tribunes & nobles argued for & against, while matrons flooded streets, begging men to support repeal. Consul M. Porcius Cato vehemently opposed repeal, delivering speech in defense of law. 1.3 1:05.

2 1173 Consul M. Porcius Cato spoke against repealing Oppian Law, which restricted women's luxuries. He argued that women's increasing freedom would lead to chaos, citing their "female despotism" at home & their public demonstrations. He believed women should obey their husbands & stay out of politics. 2.5 2:05.

3 1174 Cato argued that women's freedom would lead to chaos, citing their increasing boldness. He asked if they would tolerate their wives as equals, implying they would become masters. He questioned reason for their protests, suggesting it was not for noble cause, but to indulge in luxuries & defeat law. 1.6 1:20.

4 1175 Cato warned that women's increasing freedom would lead to luxury & extravagance, citing their desire for gold & purple. He argued that repealing Oppian Law would unleash unlimited spending, causing shame & rivalry among women. He urged Quirites to maintain law, lest luxury & extravagance become unstoppable. 3.5 2:55.

5 1176 L. Valerius defended his proposal to repeal Oppian Law, citing historical examples of women's public assemblies benefiting State. He argued that matrons' request was not seditious movement, but natural response to law that affected them closely. He appealed to Quirites to listen to their requests. 2.5 2:05.

6 1177 L. Valerius argued that laws made in crisis are "mortal" & subject to change with time. He noted Oppian Law was passed 20 years ago during Hannibal's invasion, when Rome was in poverty & crisis, & its repeal would not encourage luxury. He questioned why laws made in emergency should remain in force after crisis passes. 3 2:40.

7 1178 L. Valerius argued that wives should share in prosperity of peace, wearing purple & gold like their husbands. He noted that women's adornment is their delight & pride, & repealing Oppian Law would not undermine husbands' authority, but show moderation & protection, rather than treating them like slaves. 2.4 2:00.

8 1179 The women, in greater numbers, protested at Brutuses' doorstep, forcing them to withdraw their opposition. Oppian Law was repealed unanimously. Cato, meanwhile, sailed to Luna with 25 ships, gathering more along coast, & proceeded to Pyrenees, expelling Spanish forces from Rhoda & landing his troops at Emporiae. .9 :35.

9 1180 Emporiae had 2 towns, one Greek & one Spanish, with Roman colony. Greeks, despite weakness, maintained discipline & vigilance, guarding their walls & limiting Spanish access. Cato's army was welcomed, & he used time to gather intelligence & train his troops, before raiding Spanish fields & spreading terror. 2.1 1:45.

10 1181 M. Helvius defeated 20,000 Celtiberians near Iliturgi, killing 12,000 & taking town. He sent his escort back to Further Spain & returned to Rome, celebrating with an ovation. He brought 732 pounds of silver, 17,023 Spanish denarii, & 11,943 Oscan silver to treasury. senate denied him triumph due to fighting under another's auspices & province. .9 :35.

11 1182 Bilistages' envoys, including his son, begged consul for 3,000 troops to defend against attacks on their strongholds. consul, concerned but lacking sufficient forces, refused, prompting envoys to plead tearfully, threatening to defect to enemy if Rome didn't help, citing fate of Saguntines. 1.2 1:00.

12 1183 The consul, torn between helping allies & weakening his army, decided to offer hope without actual aid. He told envoys he'd send help, but instead ordered 3rd of each cohort to prepare food & ships to sail in 3 days, keeping chief's son with him to maintain illusion. 1.2 1:00.

13 1184 The consul, having tested his men & enemy, addressed his troops, saying it was time to shift from plundering to pitched battle. He encouraged them to regain Roman dominance in Spain, lost despite their strength & absence of Carthaginians. He announced night attack on enemy camp. 1.5 1:15.

14 1185 The consul led his troops to rear of enemy camp, formed line, & sent cohorts to provoke response. enemy emerged, thinking Romans retreating. consul attacked, but his right wing faltered. He rallied them & sent cohorts to outflank enemy, turning battle into fierce melee. 1.7 1:25.

15 1186 The consul brought up reserves, re-formed front, & attacked with fresh troops, breaking enemy lines. He then led 2nd legion to attack camp, targeting left-hand gate. defenders overwhelmed, & Romans plundered camp, killing over 40,000 enemy soldiers, according to Valerius Antias. 1.4 1:10.

16 1187 Cato's victory led to uninterrupted advances, with his army plundering fields & receiving surrenders from various communities. By time he reached Tarraco, all of Spain on Ebro's left had been subjugated. rumor of an attack on Turdetania led to brief revolt by 7 Bergistani fortresses, which quickly subdued & punished with slavery. 1.6 1:20.

17 1188 P. Manlius defeated Turdetani with ease, but they hired 10,000 Celtiberian mercenaries to continue fighting. Meanwhile, Cato disarmed Spanish population, leading to widespread despair & suicide. He sought advice from local senators, but ultimately leveled city walls & received submissions from all cities, except Segestica, which he took by storm. 1.6 1:20.

18 1189 Cato faced tougher task in subjugating Spain than previous generals, as Spaniards had grown accustomed to freedom & resisted his rule. He personally led effort, exhibiting exceptional energy & discipline, & setting an example for his soldiers by living frugally & working tirelessly. .8 :40.

19 1190 Cato marched to assist praetor against Turdetani & Celtiberian mercenaries. He offered Celtiberians choice: join Romans, depart with guarantee, or fix battle time. They asked for day to consult, but no decision was made. Cato sent cohorts to plunder & marched to Segestia, then returned to Ebro, leaving his army with praetor. 1.4 1:10.

20 1191 Cato captured several towns, & Sedetani, Ausetani, & Suessetani allied with him. Lacetani, fierce tribe, resisted, fearing retribution for their raids on Roman-friendly tribes. Cato led force around town, using Suessetani auxiliaries to distract Lacetani, then captured town with his Roman cohorts. 1.2 1:00.

21 1192 Cato captured Vergium, stronghold of brigands, with help of Vergestanus, local chief. brigands executed, & townspeople sold into slavery, except for those who had helped Romans, who freed. Cato then organized mines, increasing revenue & earning three-day thanksgiving from Senate. 1.1 :55.

22 1193 In Gaul, L. Valerius Flaccus defeated Boii, killing 8,000. In Greece, T. Quinctius maintained peace & liberty, earning admiration for his moderation & justice. He then summoned meeting of Greek delegates to discuss war against Nabis, asking if they wanted Argos to remain under Nabis' rule or be restored to liberty. 1.8 1:30.

23 1194 The Athenian delegate expressed gratitude for Roman assistance, but Aetolian, Alexander, responded with bitter attack, accusing Athens of betraying common cause & seeking favor. He defended Aetolia's loyalty to Rome & protested against Roman hypocrisy in proclaiming liberty while occupying Chalcis & Demetrias. 1.4 1:10.

24 1195 Aristaenus, captain-general of Achaean League, denounced Aetolians as barbarous robbers & urged Romans to rescue Argos from Nabis & secure Greece against Aetolian threats. delegates unanimously voted for war, & Roman commander instructed each city to send contingent. An envoy was sent to Aetolians, exposing their true intentions. 1.2 1:00.

25 1196 Roman commander Quinctius marched on Argos with 10,000 Achaean infantry. Pythagoras, Lacedaemonian commander, strengthened citadels but feared Romans. Argive Damocles plotted to expel garrison but was discovered & killed with his supporters. Some fugitives fled to Romans, escaping via cords lowered from walls. 1.6 1:20.

26 1197 Quinctius moved his camp near Argos, but citizens didn't rise up. He considered attacking Argos, but instead decided to target Lacedaemon & its tyrant. He marched to Caryae, awaiting allied contingents, including 1,500 Macedonian troops, 400 Thessalian cavalry, & naval force of 40 ships from Leucas & others from Rhodes & Eumenes. 2 1:40.

27 1198 Nabis, despite being outnumbered, prepared for war with 1,000 Cretan troops & 10,000 Lacedaemonians. He fortified Sparta & detained 80 suspected citizens, executing them by night. He also punished Helots for attempted desertion, creating terror & quelling rebellion. Nabis remained within his lines, fearing defeat & unrest. 1.6 1:20.

28 1199 Quinctius marched to Sellasia & then to Eurotas, where his troops attacked by Nabis' auxiliaries. Romans regrouped & marched to Mount Menelaus, where they defeated Nabis' mercenaries. Romans then ravaged countryside, including Amyclae, & camped on Eurotas, devastating district from Taygetus to sea. 2 1:40.

29 1200 Lucius Quinctius attacked Gytheum with his army & fleet of Eumenes & Rhodians. city was heavily fortified, but Romans breached wall & almost penetrated. Just as surrender seemed imminent, Gorgopas killed Dexagoridas & took command, but eventually surrendered to Quinctius with 4000 troops. 1.8 1:30.

30 1201 Nabis, alarmed by Roman fleet & loss of coastal towns, surrendered after Gytheum fell. He sent Pythagoras to request conference with Quinctius, which was granted. 2 leaders met on neutral ground with small escorts, accompanied by notable figures like Eumenes, Sosilaus, Aristaenus, & military tribunes. .9 :35.

31 1202 Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, addressed Quinctius & Romans, asking why they declared war on him. He defended his actions, citing treaty between them & his aid to Argives. He justified his rule, saying he was same man they allied with, & his actions in line with Spartan laws & customs. 3.1 2:35.

32 1203 Quinctius replied to Nabis, stating that Rome's alliance was with Philip, rightful king of Lacedaemon, not with tyrants like Nabis. He accused Nabis of oppression, cruelty, & violating their friendship by seizing Messene, allying with Philip, & attacking Roman citizens. He told Nabis to stop pretending to be loyal ally & speak as tyrant & enemy. 3.1 2:35.

33 1204 Aristaenus urged Nabis to surrender, citing examples of former tyrants who had been deposed & lived safely among their citizens. Nabis agreed to evacuate Argos & surrender prisoners, but Quinctius' council favored continuing war to ensure Greece's freedom. Quinctius, however, preferred peace, fearing long siege & war with Antiochus. 1.8 1:30.

34 1205 Quinctius, unable to convince allies to abandon siege, feigned agreement & highlighted challenges of long siege, including need for vast resources, supplies, & siege engines. He suggested they consult their cities, & allies, reminded of their own difficulties, quickly changed their minds, leaving decision to Quinctius. 1.4 1:10.

35 1206 Quinctius wrote peace terms for Nabis, including 6-month truce, withdrawal from Argos within 10 days, return of ships & prisoners, & restoration of property. Nabis was limited to 2 small vessels, couldn't form alliances or build fortifications, & had to provide 5 hostages, including his son, & pay 100-talent indemnity & 50 talents annually for 8 years. 1.8 1:30.

36 1207 Nabis received peace terms, which he found unpleasant, particularly demand to surrender his ships & seaports. conditions became public, & various groups objected: those who married exiles' wives, those who appropriated exiles' property, freed slaves fearing re-enslavement, & mercenaries who would lose their pay & face opposition in their own cities. 1.1 :55.

37 1208 Nabis' supporters gathered, discussing grievances & eventually arming themselves. Nabis called an assembly, outlining Romans' demands & adding his own, sparking angry protests. crowd insisted on continuing war, hoping for aid from Antiochus & Aetolians. Skirmishes ensued, culminating in battle on 5th day, with Lacedaemonians driven back into their city. 1.1 :55.

38 1209 Quinctius invested Sparta with 50,000 men, ordering simultaneous assault on 3 unprotected points: Phoebeum, Dictynneum, & Heptagoniae. Nabis defended energetically at first, but as panic spread, he lost nerve, unable to give orders or listen to messages, & was almost beside himself. 1.4 1:10.

39 1210 Romans & Lacedaemonians clashed in narrow streets, with 3 separate battles raging. Lacedaemonians used missiles, but Romans' shields protected them. As Romans advanced, Lacedaemonians fled, & Nabis sought escape. Pythagoras ordered buildings near walls set ablaze, forcing Romans to retreat, & saving city from capture. 1.8 1:30.

40 1211 Quinctius harassed Lacedaemonians for 3 days, then granted Pythagoras an audience. Pythagoras agreed to Roman terms, & hostilities ceased. Argos, thinking Lacedaemon's capture imminent, expelled remaining garrison under Archippus, while Timocrates left under safe-conduct. Quinctius then went to Argos, where he found population happy. 1.1 :55.

41 1212 The Roman commander was made president of Nemean Games, sign of Argive delight. Many citizens returned, & liberty was restored. However, Achaeans unhappy about Lacedaemon's continued subjugation. Quinctius led his forces back to Elatia, & tyrant was eventually defeated, losing 14,000 men & 4,000 prisoners. 1.6 1:20.

42 1213 Quinctius' & Porcius' dispatches reached Rome, prompting 3-day thanksgiving. Consul L. Valerius returned for elections, & new consuls P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus & Tiberius Sempronius Longus elected. Praetors also elected, & consul returned to his province. Ferentinum's attempt to claim Roman citizenship was denied. .8 :40.

43 1214 Nabis' envoys came to Rome, & senate confirmed peace treaty. consuls' provinces discussed, with Scipio arguing for Macedonia due to threat of Antiochus & Hannibal. praetors received their provinces, & it was decided to disband armies in Macedonia & Spain, with Italy as consuls' province. 1.3 1:05.

44 1215 The pontifical college ordered new Sacred Spring & Great Games due to improper observance. Censors Sextus Aelius Paetus & C. Cornelius Cethegus selected Scipio as senate leader, removed few senators, & reserved seats for senators at Roman Games. Q. Pleminius' plot to escape prison by burning City was foiled & he was executed. 1.4 1:10.

45 1216 Roman citizens settled as colonists in various towns, including Puteoli, Volturnum, Liternum, Salernum, Buxentum, Sipontum, Tempsa, & Croto. Commissioners oversaw emigration & land distribution. Meanwhile, portents appeared in Rome & other places, including blood, mud, & deformed births, which expiated by sacrifices. 1.1 :55.

46 1217 M. Porcius Cato celebrated his triumph over Spaniards, displaying 25,000 pounds of unwrought silver, 12,300 silver denarii, 540 of Oscan coinage, & 1200 pounds of gold. He distributed 270 ases to each infantry soldier & triple that amount to cavalry. Tiberius Sempronius fought Boii in Gaul. 2 1:40.

47 1218 The battle raged outside Roman camp, with 4th legion initially held up. Gauls broke through quaestorian gate, killing 200 men, including quaestor & praefects. Romans eventually drove them out, but battle was fierce, with 11,000 Gauls & 5000 Romans killed. 1.4 1:10.

48 1219 The Gauls retreated, & consul led his legions to Placentia. Scipio possibly joined his colleague & plundered Boii & Ligurians, or returned to Rome for elections. T. Quinctius spent winter in Elatia, administering justice & reforming politics in Greek cities, then convened Pan-Hellenic council in Corinth. 1.4 1:10.

49 1220 Quinctius addressed Pan-Hellenic council, acknowledging their concerns about Nabis & explaining his decision to spare Lacedaemon. He announced his departure for Italy & evacuation of Demetrias, Chalcis, & Acrocorinthus, urging Greeks to measure their friends by deeds, preserve harmony, & defend their liberty. 1.8 1:30.

50 1221 Quinctius' speech was met with tears & applause, & he asked Greeks to send any Roman slaves to him in Thessaly within 2 months. An estimated 1,200 Roman prisoners from Punic War freed, costing Achaeans 100 talents (500 denarii per head). Quinctius departed, leaving Appius Claudius to lead troops to Oricum. 1.4 1:10.

51 1222 Quinctius withdrew Roman forces from Chalcis, Oreus, Eretria, & Demetrias, leaving cities in state of liberty. He then proceeded to Thessaly, where he restored order & established government, selecting senators & judges from propertied classes to maintain peace & security. .8 :40.

52 1223 Quinctius' army was carried across to Brundisium & marched to Rome, where he was awarded three-day triumph. procession featured 18,000 pounds of silver, 270 pounds of silver plate, 84,000 Attic silver coins, 37 pounds of gold, & 14,500 coins from Philip's mint. Each soldier received largess of 250 ases or more. 1.4 1:10.

53 1224 In a year, 2 Latin colonies established, one in Bruttium & one in Thurium, with commissioners appointed for 3 years. Several temples dedicated, including Juno Matuta, Faunus, Fortuna Primigenia, & Jupiter, which had been vowed & contracted for by various officials in previous years. 1.1 1:05.

54 1225 P. Scipio returned from Gaul to conduct elections, & new consuls & praetors elected. Atilius Serranus & L. Scribonius Libo first aediles to exhibit scenic games, & senate sat apart from people for first time, change that sparked debate & criticism (557 years after practice began). 1 :50.

55 1226 Frequent earthquakes led to repeated suspensions of business, exhausting consuls with sacrifices & expiations. decemvirs consulted Sacred Books, leading to 3-day intercession. senate authorized an edict to limit earthquake reports, & consuls & praetors balloted for their provinces, with Gaul, Liguria, & various judicial jurisdictions assigned. .8 :40.

56 1227 A despatch from M. Cincius reported Ligurian uprising with 20,000 armed men. Minucius issued an edict for 2 legions to muster at Arretium & raised additional troops from Latin & allied communities, totaling 15,000 infantry & 500 cavalry. Reinforcements sent to Fulvius & Flaminius, & state of emergency was declared. 2 1:40.

57 1228 T. Quinctius reported to senate on arrangements made with 10 commissioners. Envoys from Greece & 3 kings introduced, including Menippus & Hegesianax, who sought friendly relations & an alliance. Hegesianax explained 3 types of treaties, seeking league of friendship with no conditions imposed (10 commissioners). 1.9 1:35.

58 1229 Quinctius replied that friendship with Rome required Antiochus to keep out of Europe or allow Rome to protect its alliances in Asia. Hegesianax argued that Antiochus had right to cities in Thrace & Chersonese, which his ancestors had won. Quinctius countered that Rome's honor demanded championing Greek liberties, intending to free Asian cities from Antiochus as they had from Philip. 1.8 1:30.

59 1230 Hegesianax hesitated, & P. Sulpicius pressed for choice between Quinctius' conditions. Menippus refused to compromise Antiochus' sovereignty. Quinctius presented demands to senate & Greek deputations, vowing to defend Greek liberties against Antiochus. Menippus requested time for reflection, & matter was postponed, with same commissioners sent to negotiate with Antiochus. 1 :50.

60 1231 Envoys from Carthage reported that Antiochus was preparing for war with Rome, aided by Hannibal, who had fled to his court. Hannibal advised Antiochus to fight in Italy, needing 100 decked ships, 10,000 infantry, & 1,000 cavalry. He planned to persuade Carthage to join war or spark conflict in Italy. 1 :50.

61 1232 Hannibal sent Aristo, Tyrian servant, to Carthage with secret instructions. Aristo's activities aroused suspicion, & he was summoned before senate. He failed to give satisfactory explanation & was accused of being spy. He escaped by fleeing city, leaving behind placard claiming his instructions for government, not private citizens. 2.5 2:05.

62 1233 Masinissa attacked Carthage's coastal district, Emporia, & sent envoys to Rome to dispute Carthage's claim to territory. senate heard both sides & decided to send commission to Africa to settle dispute. commissioners, including Scipio Africanus, ultimately left question unsettled, deeming it expedient to do so. 2.6 2:10.

35 194 - 92 (559 - 61) 2
Antiochus in Greece
51 82.7 1:08:55 41.35

1 1234 In Spain, Sextus Digitius faced costly engagements, while P. Cornelius Scipio won several battles beyond Ebro, gaining 50 towns. As pro-praetor, he defeated Lusitanians, killing 12,000, taking 540 prisoners & 134 standards, with only 73 Roman losses. He celebrated Games to Jupiter & distributed spoils. 1.7 1:25.

2 1235 C. Flaminius sought City legion to supplement 6,200 infantry & 300 cavalry he could raise, due to dire state of Sex. Digitius' army. senate refused, suggesting he raise emergency troops in Spain instead. Flaminius allegedly went to Sicily & later Africa, where he recruited soldiers from P. Africanus' army. 1 :50.

3 1236 Minucius arrived in Arretium & marched to Pisae, entering city with his troops. He camped near enemy, who had 40,000 men, & sent out skirmishers to protect land. . .9 :45.

4 1237 Ligurians offered battle, but Minucius, leading new levies, avoided regular engagement, focusing on securing area. 1.2 1:00.

5 1238 The battle began at 8 am. Roman cavalry & special corps fought Gauls, but Gauls held their ground despite heavy casualties. Roman legion arrived, & cavalry charged, breaking Gaulish lines. Gauls fled, & Romans pursued, killing 14,000, capturing 1,902, & taking 721 cavalry & 63 military wagons. Roman losses over 5,000, including 23 centurions & 3 military tribunes. 2.1 1:45.

6 1239 Consuls L. Cornelius & Q. Minucius sent despatches to

Rome. Minucius reported uncertainty in Liguria & suggested Cornelius return for elections. senate instructed commissioners to inform Cornelius to come to Rome or an interrex would be appointed. Cornelius agreed, but M. Claudius criticized his leadership, citing delays & lost opportunities. 1.6 1:20.

7 1240 The senate addressed issues with money-lenders evading laws, requiring allied States' citizens to report loans to Romans by Feralia. Debts totaled considerable sum, & measure was passed to apply Roman laws to these debts. In Spain, C. Flaminius took Inlucia & M. Fulvius defeated combined force, capturing King Hilernus. 1.4 1:10.

8 1241 L. Cornelius returned to Rome, seeking public thanksgiving & triumph for his victory. However, Q. Metellus raised concerns about conflicting accounts from Cornelius & M. Marcellus, & suggested waiting until truth could be ascertained. 2 tribunes, M. & C. Titinius, threatened to veto senate's resolution. 1.4 1:10.

9 1242 Censors Sextus Aelius Paetus & C. Cornelius Cethegus conducted lustrum, counting 243,704 citizens. Natural disasters & omens occurred, prompting sacrifices & lustration. M. Porcius Cato dedicated chapel to Victoria Virgo. Latin colony was established at Castrum Frentinum with 3,000 infantry & 300 cavalry, receiving 20-40 jugera of land each. 1.2 1:00.

10 1243 The consular elections fiercely contested, with patrician candidates P. Cornelius & L. Quinctius Flamininus emerging as frontrunners. Quinctius won, aided by his brother's recent successes. Plebeian candidate Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus also won. 6 praetors elected, & 2 aediles, M. Aemilius Lepidus & L. Aemilius Paulus, distinguished themselves. 2.1 1:45.

11 1244 In Liguria, consul's camp was attacked, & later, his army was trapped in pass. About 800 Numidian horsemen, led by their commander, broke through enemy lines by feigning weakness & then attacking, setting fires & causing chaos, allowing consul's army to escape. 1.9 1:35.

12 1245 The Aetolians, bitter enemies of Rome, convened council at Naupactus to stir up war. They sent envoys to Nabis, Philip, & Antiochus, urging them to join forces against

Rome. Democritus, Nicander, & Dicaearchus used various arguments to persuade kings, including promise of military support & past grievances. 2.6 2:10.

13 1246 Nabis, tyrant, attempted to foment rising in coastal towns, but Achaeans defended them. Antiochus, meanwhile, marched against Pisidians. Roman commissioners P. Sulpicius & P. Villius visited Eumenes, who welcomed war with Antiochus, hoping to gain territory & security with Roman allies. 1.6 1:20.

14 1247 P. Villius visited Ephesus, where he met Hannibal, attempting to discern his plans & alleviate Roman suspicions. Their conversations, reported by Claudius, included discussion on greatest commanders, with Hannibal ranking Alexander, Pyrrhus, & himself first, second, & third, respectively, impressing Scipio with his diplomatic answer. 1.4 1:10.

15 1248 Villius met Antiochus in Apamea, but their conference was cut short by news of king's son's death. Suspicion fell on king, alleged to have ordered poisoning. court mourned, & Villius withdrew to Pergamum. Antiochus returned to Ephesus, where his advisor Minnio convinced him to reopen talks with Romans. 1.6 1:20.

16 1249 Minnio argued that Rome's demands on Antiochus hypocritical, as they themselves imposed tribute & taxes on Greek cities. Sulpicius countered that Rome's rights based on uninterrupted possession, whereas Antiochus' claims weakened by cities' history of independence & changes in rulers. 1.9 1:35.

17 1250 Eumenes orchestrated representatives' grievances against Antiochus, leading to heated altercation. Roman commissioners left without resolution. Antiochus' council of war advocated for defiance, denouncing Roman demands as arrogant & insignificant, warning that surrender would invite further demands & encourage others to seek liberation. 1.3 1:05.

18 1251 Alexander, an Acarnanian familiar with Greece & Rome, advised Antiochus to declare war & cross into Europe, where he would find allies in Aetolians, Nabis, & Philip. He urged swift action to secure advantageous positions & suggested sending Hannibal to Africa to divert Roman forces. 1.3 1:05.

19 1252 Hannibal, excluded from council, asked Antiochus why he was out of favor. He reminded king of his lifelong hatred for Rome, sworn by an oath to his father Hamilcar, & offered to be loyal ally in war. His speech reconciled him with Antiochus, who resolved to go to war. 1.2 1:00.

20 1253 In Rome, preparations for war with Antiochus minimal. Consuls & praetors assigned provinces, including Italy, Liguria, Gaul, Sicily, Sardinia, & Spain. A. Atilius received fleet & Macedonia, while Baebius commanded in Bruttium. senate awaited return of commissioners sent to Antiochus before taking action. 1.7 1:25.

21 1254 Praetors Fulvius & Scribonius tasked with fitting out 100 quinqueremes. Portents included she-goat with 6 kids, one-handed boy, earth shower, wall struck by lightning, & an ox uttering "Roma, cave tibi". Flooded Tiber destroyed 2 bridges & buildings. Q. Minucius killed 9,000 Ligurians near Pisae. 1.5 1:15.

22 1255 Commissioners returned from visiting kings, reporting no immediate hostilities except from tyrant of Lacedaemon. Atilius was sent to Greece with fleet. Consuls Domitius & Quinctius marched against Boii & Liguria, respectively, with successes. In Spain, C. Flaminius captured Licabrum & Conribilo, while M. Fulvius fought 2 successful battles, stormed fortified places, & captured towns, including Toletum, defeating Vettones in pitched battle. 1.1 :55.

23 1256 Rumors of war with Antiochus concerned Roman senate more than actual wars. Antiochus' fleet was reportedly heading to Sicily with 20 ships, prompting senate to send 12,000 foot & 400 horse to defend coast. Attalus, brother of Eumenes, confirmed Antiochus' army had crossed Hellespont with 100 silver vases & 20 gold vases. 1.5 1:15.

24 1257 As war loomed, senate urged early consular elections. M. Fulvius was told to return to Rome, sending notice of elections along way. 3 patricians vied for consulship, with P. Cornelius Scipio winning. 6 praetors elected, including L. Oppius Salinator, commander of 20-ship fleet in Sicily. 1 :50.

25 1258 Nabis besieged Gytheum, prompting Achaeans to seek Roman advice. T. Quinctius urged them to wait for Roman aid, but Philopoemen, their chief magistrate, persuaded them to vote for war, leaving timing & strategy to him. Philopoemen then ordered Achaean fleet to sea, fearing delay would cost them Gytheum. 1.5 1:15.

26 1259 Nabis' fleet, including 3 decked ships, prepared to intercept relief efforts by sea. Philopoemen, inexperienced in naval matters, led Achaean fleet, including rotten old quadrireme, which broke apart & was captured by Lacedaemonians. Philopoemen escaped & vowed to succeed on land, his area of expertise. 1.6 1:20.

27 1260 Nabis, confident after his naval victory, encamped at Pleiae to block land access. Philopoemen launched surprise night attack, burning enemy's huts & inflicting heavy casualties. He then led his force to Tripolis, capturing booty & assembling Achaean army at Tegea. Philopoemen marched on Lacedaemon, unaware Gytheum had fallen. 1.6 1:20.

28 1261 Philopoemen, skilled in march tactics, halted his column & sent 500 Cretan auxiliaries, Tarentine horse, & cavalry to front. He secured water supply by occupying rock, collecting camp-followers & baggage, & setting up entrenchments. enemy was .5 miles distant, & battle was imminent. 1.9 1:35.

29 1262 Cretan & Tarentine forces clashed on river bank, with Philopoemen's troops feigning retreat to lure enemy into an ambush. caetrati attacked, causing enemy to flee in disorder. Philopoemen sounded "retire" to avoid dangerous terrain. He then sent fake deserter to deceive Nabis, causing him to withdraw to Lacedaemon. 1.8 1:30.

30 1263 Philopoemen's forces attacked enemy camp, causing them to flee in disorder. Achaeans plundered camp & pursued enemy, blocking road with abandoned weapons. Philopoemen led heavy infantry to Eurotas, encamping before sunset. He posted select troops on roads leading out of Lacedaemon, capturing fugitives & devastating fields, ultimately weakening tyrant's power. 2.2 1:50.

31 1264 Roman envoys visited allies, addressing councils in Athens, Chalcis, Thessaly, & Demetrias. In Demetrias, they faced opposition from Eurylochus, who feared Rome would restore city to Philip. Quinctius expressed anger at Magnetes' ingratitude, but Zeno intervened, reaffirming their loyalty to Rome & gratitude for their liberty. 2.6 2:10.

32 1265 Eurylochus fled to Aetolia, where Thoas & Menippus, Antiochus' envoy, boasted of king's vast forces & wealth. Quinctius requested Athenian delegates to attend Pan-Aetolian Council, where they urged Aetolians to honor their treaty with Rome, warning against hasty action & promoting friendly debate over war. 2 1:40.

33 1266 Quinctius addressed Aetolian council, highlighting their treaty violations & urging them to resolve disputes peacefully. However, council, led by Thoas, decreed to invite Antiochus to "liberate" Greece & arbitrate with

Rome. Damocritus, chief magistrate, insolently dismissed Quinctius, vowing to respond from his Italian campaign. 1.5 1:15.

34 1267 The Aetolians, through their inner council, plotted revolution in Greece. They decided to occupy Demetrias, Chalcis, & Lacedaemon, sending leaders to each city. In Demetrias, Diocles & Eurylochus, with cavalry force, seized control, killing opposition leaders, & gained city for Aetolians. 1.9 1:35.

35 1268 Alexamenus, with 1000 infantry & 30 cavalry, went to Lacedaemon, gaining tyrant's trust. He advised Nabis to exercise his troops, & during drill, Alexamenus & his men attacked & killed tyrant, spearing his horse & striking him with lances, ending his reign. 2.9 2:25.

36 1269 Alexamenus & Aetolians seized palace, but their treachery & looting aroused Lacedaemonian indignation. citizens united, chose Laconicus as their leader, & killed Aetolians, including Alexamenus. Some fugitives captured & sold as slaves in Tegea & Megalopolis, ending Aetolian occupation. 1.4 2:10.

37 1270 Philopoemen incorporated Lacedaemon into Achaean league after tyrant's death. Meanwhile, Thoas attempted to capture Chalcis with 2,000 infantry, 200 cavalry, & 30 light transports. Herodorus was to sail with 600 infantry to Atalanta, then to Chalcis, but plan ultimately failed. 1 :50.

38 1271 Micythio & Xenoclides, leaders of Chalcis, sought help from Eretria & Carystus, citing their alliance with

Rome. 2 cities sent troops, & Chalcis defended its walls. Thoas, leading Aetolians, claimed they came to "deliver" Chalcis from Rome, but Chalcidians refused, saying they free. Aetolians retreated, & Euthymidas returned to Athens. 1.8 1:30.

39 1272 Quinctius met Eumenes & arranged for 500 troops to protect Chalcis. He then wrote to Eunomus, asking him to mobilize Thessalian forces to support Roman sympathizers. Villius was sent to sound out Magnetes, but was rebuffed by Eurylochus, leading to heated dispute. Villius returned to Quinctius, who then returned to Corinth. 1.1 :55.

40 1273 After consular elections, L. Quinctius & Cn. Domitius went to their provinces. Boii surrendered to Domitius, while Quinctius devastated Liguria, capturing forts & freeing prisoners. Military colony was formed at Vibo with 3,700 infantry & 300 cavalry. Meanwhile, Rome experienced earth tremors for 38 days & fire in Forum Boarium that burned for day & night, destroying shops & stocks. 1.3 1:05.

41 1274 The senate assigned provinces, with one consul to lead 4,000 Roman & 6,000 allied infantry, & 300 Roman & 400 allied cavalry against Antiochus. L. Quinctius was instructed to raise this force & 2 new Roman legions, plus 20,000 infantry & 800 cavalry for praetor drawing Bruttium. 1.4 1:10.

42 1275 Antiochus was delayed in Asia by 3 cities & uncertainty about Hannibal. Thoas advised against sending Hannibal to Africa, citing his unreliability & military reputation, which would overshadow Antiochus' own glory. Thoas suggested keeping Hannibal as an advisor, utilizing his skills without giving him command. 2.1 1:45.

43 1276 Antiochus, with 40 decked & 60 undecked ships, & 200 transports, sailed to Greece, stopping at Imbros, Sciathus, & Pteleum. He disembarked at Demetrias with 10,000 infantry, 500 cavalry, & 6 elephants. Aetolians invited him to council, & he advanced to Phalara & Lamia, receiving warm welcome. 1.3 1:05.

44 1277 Antiochus apologized for his smaller-than-expected force, citing his devotion to Aetolians. He promised to fulfill their hopes, fill Greece with arms & men, & deliver it from Roman rule, making Aetolia foremost state. He asked Aetolians to supply his troops with corn & provisions. 1 :50.

45 1278 Phaeneas argued that Antiochus should act as peace-maker, while Thoas believed they should utilize his military strength to negotiate with

Rome. Thoas' argument prevailed, & Antiochus was appointed commander-in-chief with absolute powers, accompanied by council of 30 Aetolian leaders to advise him as needed. 1.3 1:05.

46 1279 Antiochus & 1000 infantry marched to Chalcis, while Aetolian leaders followed with 10 ships. At Salganeus, they confer with Chalcidian magistrates. Aetolians urge friendship with both Rome & Antiochus, warning of consequences if they refuse. Micythio replies that Chalcis is already free & needs no protection, asking them to leave island. 1.8 1:30.

47 1280 Antiochus, with 1000 infantry, failed to capture Chalcis & returned to Demetrias. He consulted Aetolians on next steps, deciding to approach Boeotians, Achaeans, & Athamanian king Amynander. They believed Boeotians estranged from Rome, & Philopoemen's reputation made him an enemy of Quinctius. Amynander's connection to Alexander's lineage was also factor. 1 :50.

48 1281 Antiochus' envoy spoke at an Achaian council, boasting of king's vast cavalry & infantry forces, naval power, & wealth. He asked Achaeans to remain neutral, citing Romans' ingratitude & Aetolian valour. Archidamus, Aetolian representative, echoed this, urging passivity & criticizing Quinctius' leadership. 2 1:40.

49 1282 Quinctius responded, criticizing Aetolians' empty boasts & Antiochus' exaggerated claims. He likened king's forces to dressed-up pig, composed of servile Syrians. He urged Achaeans to trust Rome's proven faithfulness, warning that neutrality would only lead to being prize for victor. 2.2 1:50.

50 1283 Quinctius' speech won over Achaeans, who declared war on Antiochus & Aetolians, sending 500 men to Chalcis & Piraeus. In Athens, Apollodorus was banished for supporting Antiochus. Antiochus sent Menippus with 3,000 men & Polyxenidas with fleet to Chalcis, & marched there with 6,000 men & Aetolians. 1.5 1:15.

51 1284 Menippus attacked Delium, killing & capturing Roman soldiers. Antiochus sent 2nd mission to Chalcis, using threats to gain entry. Roman supporters fled, & Achaean & Eumenes' troops abandoned Salganeus. Romans resisted but eventually surrendered, giving Antiochus control of Euboea & its cities, successful start to war. 1.6 1:20.

36 192 - 88 (561 - 5) 4
War Against Antiochus
45 74 1:01:40 18.5

1 1285 Consuls P. Cornelius Scipio & Manius Acilius Glabrio performed sacrifices, which haruspices interpreted as favorable omens for extending Rome's boundaries through victory & triumph. senate submitted question of war against Antiochus to people, who approved it. consuls then balloted for provinces, with Greece & Italy assigned. 1.5 1:15.

2 1286 The senate allocated provinces & armies. Acilius got Greece, Cornelius got Italy. Praetors drew their provinces: Junius got civil jurisdictions, Mammula got Bruttium, Lepidus got Sicily, Salinator got Sardinia, Livius got fleet, & Paullus got Further Spain with 3,000 fresh infantry & 300 cavalry. 2.2 1:50.

3 1287 Six commissioners sent to Africa to procure corn for Greece. consul Acilius consulted College of Fetials on declaring war on Antiochus & Aetolians. They replied that declaration could be made at frontier garrison & that league of amity was obviously denounced. Acilius then issued an edict for general muster at Brundisium by May 15. 1.9 1:35.

4 1288 Philip offered troops, money, & corn; Ptolemy sent 1,000 pounds of gold & 20,000 pounds of silver. senate declined, but thanked them. Carthaginians offered 100,000 modii of wheat & 50,000 of barley; Masinissa offered 50,000 modii of wheat & 300,000 of barley, plus 500 cavalry & 20 elephants. Rome accepted corn at market price. 1.2 1:00.

5 1289 Antiochus sent embassies to Greek communities, & some, like Epirots & Eleans, sent their own. Eleans requested aid against Achaeans, & Antiochus sent 1,000 infantry under Euphanes. Epirots asked Antiochus not to involve them in war, but promised to welcome him if he protected them with his fleet & army. 1.3 1:05.

6 1290 Antiochus went to Boeotia, where leading citizens assembled at Thebes. Despite his hostile acts, he asked for friendly relations, not war against

Rome. Boeotians passed resolution supporting him, & he returned to Chalcis. He then met with Aetolian leaders, Amynander, & Hannibal at Demetrias to discuss winning over Thessaly. 1.5 1:15.

7 1291 Hannibal advised Antiochus to secure Philip's alliance, as he had previously fought against

Rome. Hannibal also recommended concentrating forces, dividing fleet, & advancing into Byllis to protect Greece & threaten Italy. 3.8 3:10.

8 1292 Hannibal's advice was ignored, except for sending Polyxenidas to bring up fleet & troops from Asia. Antiochus sent delegates to Thessaly & proceeded to Pherae with his troops. He also sent Philip Megalopolitan with 2,000 men to collect bones of Macedonians who fell at Cynoscephalae, which angered Philip. 1.1 :55.

9 1293 Antiochus, encamped at Pherae with 2,000 men, received deputation from Larisa asking him to withdraw. He replied that he sought to establish Thessalian freedom. Pherae resisted, but eventually surrendered after fierce fighting. Antiochus then sent 4,000 men to Scotusa, which promptly surrendered, including Hippolochus & his 500-man garrison. 2.1 1:45.

10 1294 Antiochus took Crannon, Cierium, Metropolis, & surrounding forts within 10 days. He marched on Larisa with his army & elephants, causing some defenders to waver. After council, he withdrew to Demetrias, citing winter's approach. Aetolians & Athamanians also retreated. Appius Claudius arrived at Larisa with Roman troops, reassuring allies. 2.2 1:50.

11 1295 Antiochus married Chalcidian noble's daughter & spent winter indulging in banquets & pleasures, neglecting his war efforts. His officers & 500 soldiers also abandoned their duties. In spring, he marched to Chaeronea & then to Stratus with 300 men in Medione & 200 in Tyrrheum, unprepared for battle. 1.9 1:35.

12 1296 Antiochus' agents arrived in Medione, where some advocated for Rome & others for king's friendship. commission of 5, including Mnasilochus, was sent to Antiochus, who marched on Medione with his army. city surrendered, & many Acarnanian communities joined him. He then marched on Tyrrheum, which refused to surrender without Roman authorization. 1.6 1:20.

13 1297 M. Baebius & Philip united their forces in Thessaly, while Antiochus was in Acarnania. They captured Phacium, Phaestum, Atrax, Cyretiae, Eritium, & Malloea, placing garrisons in each. They then targeted Athamanian-held towns, including Pellinaeum, where Philip of Megalopolis defied them with 500 infantry & 40 cavalry. 1.1 :55.

14 1298 Consul Manius Atilius landed with 10,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, & elephants. He captured Larisa, Limnaea, & Pellinaeum, taking 4,000 prisoners. Philip of Macedon mocked & imprisoned Philip of Megalopolis. Consul received surrenders from Cierium, Metropolis, Pharsalus, Scotusa, Pherae, & Proerna, & captured Thaumaci, killing many defenders. 2.3 1:55.

15 1299 Antiochus, disappointed in Greece, joined Aetolians at Lamia with 10,000 infantry & 500 cavalry. However, Aetolians had fewer numbers than expected, & Antiochus felt deserted by his troops & allies. He withdrew to Thermopylae pass, narrow & rugged mountain range that cuts Greece in two. 1.7 1:25.

16 1300 Antiochus camped in Thermopylae pass, barricading it with defensive works. He sent Aetolian detachments to Heraclea & Hypata, expecting Romans to attack. consul ravaged surrounding territory & encamped opposite king. Antiochus asked Aetolians to hold surrounding mountains, but they divided: 2,000 stayed in Heraclea, while others occupied heights of Callidromus, Rhoduntia, & Tichius. 1.7 1:25.

17 1301 The consul sent Cato & Flaccus to attack Aetolians on heights, each with 2,000 infantry. He then addressed his troops, recalling their past victories & belittling enemy's strength. He urged them to fight for Greece's freedom & Rome's supremacy, promising vast rewards & divine support. 1.8 1:30.

18 1302 The consul formed his line on narrow front, & Antiochus responded by deploying his light infantry, Macedonians, javelin men, bowmen, slingers, elephants, cavalry, & remaining troops. Macedonians resisted Romans at first, but fell back to their rampart as attack intensified. M. Porcius then appeared on hill, having defeated Aetolians on Callidromus. 1.5 1:15.

19 1303 Flaccus' attempt to reach Tichius & Rhoduntia failed. Macedonians fled in panic, impeded by entrenchments, elephants, & plunder. Romans pursued to Scarphea, killing or capturing many. King escaped to Elatia with 500 bodyguards, while Romans lost 150 in battle & 50 in camp defense. 1.8 1:30.

20 1304 The consul's army marched through Phocis & Boeotia, passing by guilty cities without damage. At Coronea, they plundered temple domain, but consul stopped it, rebuking Boeotians for ingratitude. Meanwhile, Isidorus' ships fled to Cenaeus, & A. Atilius intercepted supply convoy, sinking or capturing ships & distributing spoils to friendly cities. 1.4 1:10.

21 1305 Antiochus fled to Ephesus, & consul entered Chalcis without resistance. Euboea's cities surrendered, & army returned to Thermopylae without damage. M. Cato was sent to Rome, traveling from Creusa to Hydruntum & then overland, arriving in 5 days. Meanwhile, M. Fulvius Nobilior entered Rome in ovation, carrying 130,000 silver denarii, 12,000 pounds of silver, & 127 pounds of gold. 1.4 1:10.

22 1306 Acilius advised Aetolians to surrender Heraclea & seek pardon, but they refused. He moved his army to Heraclea & scouted city, deciding to attack from four points: Asopus, citadel, Maliac Gulf, & Melana stream. Commanders Valerius, Longus, Baebius, & Claudius prepared for assault. 1.8 1:30.

23 1307 The Romans used machines to attack Heraclea, while Aetolians relied on arms. Aetolians made frequent sorties, but as siege dragged on, they grew weaker due to lack of sleep. Romans, with their greater numbers, could rotate troops, & consul exploited this advantage to wear down Aetolians. 1.5 1:15.

24 1308 The Romans attacked Heraclea at night, with 3 sides breaching walls. Aetolians fled to citadel, & Romans sacked city. consul then divided his troops, sending one group to occupy nearby peak & other to attack citadel, leading to Aetolians' surrender. 2 1:40.

25 1309 Philip, as agreed with consul, attacked Lamia while Romans besieged Heraclea. 2 cities visible from each other, & Macedonians' subterranean mining approach proved difficult. After Heraclea's fall, Lamia requested Philip to lift siege, allowing them to avoid capture & grant Romans victory spoils. 1.3 1:05.

26 1310 The Aetolians, gathered at Hypata, sent delegation to Antiochus, including Thoas, to request military aid & money. They emphasized importance of honoring his alliances & warned that Roman expansion into Asia would threaten his kingdom. Antiochus provided funds & promised support, retaining Thoas as guarantor. .7 :25.

27 1311 After Heraclea's fall, Aetolians sought peace, sending envoys to consul. He granted 10-day armistice & sent L. Valerius Flaccus to Hypata to negotiate. Flaccus advised Aetolians to abandon claims of treaty rights & instead confess their wrongdoing, seeking mercy & Roman clemency, only path to safety. 1.1 :55.

28 1312 Phaeneas, head of Aetolian delegation, surrendered to consul, committing to Rome's honor & good faith. consul demanded surrender of specific individuals, which Phaeneas initially resisted, citing Greek customs. However, faced with threats & fetters, he relented, requesting 10-day armistice to secure approval from Aetolian council. 1.7 1:25.

29 1313 The Aetolians assembled to discuss surrendering to Rome, but angered by consul's tone & demands. Nicander, freshly arrived from Antiochus, raised hopes of military aid. However, he was captured by Philip's troops while en route to Hypata. Philip treated him kindly, criticizing Aetolian policy, & released him, assigning an escort to ensure his safety. 1.5 1:15.

30 1314 Manius Acilius sold or distributed Heraclea booty. consul sent Appius Claudius with 4,000 men to secure mountain passes, while he offered sacrifice to Hercules at Pyra & marched on Corax, highest peak between Callipolis & Naupactus. Many animals & troops fell, but enemy didn't engage. 1 :50.

31 1315 Messene, refusing to join Achaean league, was besieged. Messenians sought Roman help, offering to surrender to T. Quinctius. He intervened, ending siege & ordering Messene to join league & recall banished citizens. He also demanded Zacynthus' restoration to Rome, citing its strategic importance. 1.8 1:30.

32 1316 The Achaeans bought Zacynthus from Hierocles, but Romans considered it their rightful prize. Diophanes justified purchase, but Quinctius argued that island's possession would only make Achaeans vulnerable. He persuaded council to cede Zacynthus to Rome, warning that expansion beyond their borders would leave them defenseless. 1.2 1:00.

33 1317 Philip asked consul if he should recover cities that renounced their alliance with

Rome. With consent, Philip marched to Demetrias, where citizens in despair after Antiochus' desertion. Philip's emissaries offered pardon, & city surrendered. Antiochus' soldiers escorted to Lysimachia, & Philip went on to conquer other cities. 1 :50.

34 1318 T. Quinctius arrived at Naupactus, besieged for 2 months, & was met with pleas for help from Aetolians. He appealed to consul, M. Acilius, to spare city, noting that Philip was expanding his dominions while Romans wasting time on single siege. 1.7 1:25.

35 1319 Quinctius intervened to save Naupactus, urging consul to spare city. An armistice was granted, & Aetolians sent envoys to

Rome. consul & Quinctius attended an Achaean council meeting, discussing Eleans' entry into league & Lacedaemonian exiles' restoration. Epirots' request for friendship was referred to Rome. 2.4 2:00.

36 1320 Publius Cornelius Scipio, consul & future Africanus, requested senate funds for Games he vowed in Spain, but was told to fund them himself. He celebrated Games for 10 days. temple of Mater Magna Idaea was dedicated, & first scenic Games, Megalesia, held. Other dedications included temple of Juventas. 1.3 1:05.

37 1321 Before war, various portents occurred: oxen climbed building, stone showers fell in Terracina & Amiternum, & lightning struck temples & ships. senate consulted Sibylline Books, ordaining fast day for Ceres & sacrifices for 9 days. After expiating portents, consul marched against Boii. 1 :50.

38 1322 The Ligurians attacked proconsul Q. Minucius' camp, but he repelled them after a 2-hour battle, killing 4,000 enemy & losing 300 Romans & allies. Later, P. Cornelius defeated Boii, killing 28,000, capturing 3400, & seizing 124 standards, 1230 horses, & 247 wagons, with 1484 Roman casualties. 1 :50.

39 1323 M. Fulvius Nobilior returned from Spain with 10,000 pounds of silver, 13,000 denarii, & 127 pounds of gold. P. Scipio, after defeating Boii, requested triumph, but tribune P. Sempronius argued it should be delayed until Scipio finished war against Ligurians, who aiding Boii. 1.5 1:15.

40 1324 P. Scipio requested triumph over Boii, arguing that he had defeated them, received their submission, & brought hostages. senate unanimously decreed triumph, & Scipio celebrated with procession, featuring 247 pounds of gold, 2,340 pounds of silver, 1,471 golden torques, & 23,400 silver denarii. 2.1 1:45.

41 1325 Antiochus, ignoring Roman threat, was warned by Hannibal, who alone saw danger. Hannibal noted shorter voyage from Greece to Asia & Roman fleet's potency at sea. He urged Antiochus to prepare for war, & king, realizing Hannibal's wisdom, sent 247 ships to Chersonese & ordered Polyxenidas to prepare rest of fleet. 1.2 1:00.

42 1326 C. Livius commanded Roman fleet, sailing with 50 decked ships to Neapolis, then to Sicily, & finally to Corcyra, where he learned of war's state & Roman fleet's location. He devastated Same & Zacynthus, joined Eumenes with 3 ships, & arrived at Piraeus with 81 decked vessels. 1.3 1:05.

43 1327 Livius' fleet was delayed at Delos by winds for several days. Polyxenidas advised Antiochus to engage Romans before Eumenes joined them, citing their superior speed & familiarity with sea. council agreed, & they set sail for Phocaea with 100 ships (70 decked). 2.1 1:45.

44 1328 Polyxenidas advanced with straight front, & Livius prepared for battle. Eumenes joined fight, & 2 Carthaginian ships clashed with 3 of king's ships. One Carthaginian ship was captured, & Livius' flagship engaged enemy, hooking grappling irons & defeating 2 ships. fleets became intermixed, with Eumenes attacking right division. 1.7 1:25.

45 1329 The enemy fled, & Eumenes & Romans pursued, capturing 13 ships & sinking 10. Polyxenidas escaped to Ephesus. Romans, joined by 25 Rhodian ships, sailed to Chios, then Phocaea, leaving 4 quinqueremes to guard city. fleet wintered at Canae, protected by entrenchments. New consuls & praetors elected. 1.6 1:20.

37 188 - 87 (565 - 6) 1
Final Defeat of Antiochus
60 105.5 1:27:55 105.5

1 1330 The Aetolians appealed to senate for peace, but met with resentment & offered 2 alternatives: surrender or fine of 1,000 talents. They sent away without peace & ordered to leave Italy. consuls, Scipio & Laelius, both wanted Greece, but Scipio agreed to leave decision to senate, which assigned Greece to Scipio & Italy to Laelius. 2 1:40.

2 1331 Praetors balloted for provinces: L. Aurunculeius (urban), Cneius Fulvius (alien), L. Aemilius Regillus (fleet), P. Junius Brutus (Etruria), M. Tuccius (Apulia & Bruttium), C. Atinius (Sicily). Scipio received 3000 Roman infantry, 100 cavalry, 5000 allied infantry, & 200 cavalry. Legions reassigned, & reinforcements raised: 15,000 infantry & 600 cavalry for other consul, 2000 infantry & 100 cavalry for Sicily, & 1000 seamen & 2000 marines for fleet. 1.9 1:35.

3 1332 Praetors balloted for provinces: L. Aurunculeius (urban), Cneius Fulvius (alien), L. Aemilius Regillus (fleet), P. Junius Brutus (Etruria), M. Tuccius (Apulia & Bruttium), C. Atinius (Sicily). Scipio received 3000 Roman infantry, 100 cavalry, 5000 allied infantry, & 200 cavalry. Legions reassigned, & reinforcements raised: 15,000 infantry & 600 cavalry for other consul, 2,000 infantry & 100 cavalry for Sicily, & 1,000 seamen & 2,000 marines for fleet. 1.5 1:15.

4 1333 L. Cornelius Scipio assembled 5,000 volunteers at Brundisium by July 15. 3 officers collected ships from coast. Consul departed Rome, wearing his paludamentum, during Games of Apollo, when lunar eclipse occurred. L. Aemilius Regillus took command of fleet, & L. Aurunculeius was commissioned to build 30 quinqueremes & 20 triremes. 1.5 1:15.

5 1334 Acilius attacked Lamia, but surprise assault was met with fierce resistance. He withdrew & renewed attack next day, eventually capturing city. soldiers received booty, & council decided to attack Amphissa instead of Naupactus. Acilius besieged Amphissa, using rams to breach walls. 1.3 1:05.

6 1335 Acilius' successor, consul, arrived with 13,000 infantry & 500 cavalry, sending his brother Africanus to Amphissa. citizens fled to citadel, & deputation from Athens interceded for Aetolians. Africanus suggested peace, but consul refused, despite Athenian intervention, leaving Aetolians disappointed. 1.5 1:15.

7 1336 The Aetolians requested 6-month truce to send envoys to Rome, which was granted. Manius Acilius left Greece, & consul marched into Thessaly, planning to go through Macedonia & Thrace into Asia. Africanus suggested verifying Philip's loyalty, & Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was sent to Pella, where he found Philip cooperative, providing provisions & infrastructure for army. 2.5 2:05.

8 1337 Antiochus prepared for new battle, sending Hannibal to Syria for Phoenician vessels & ordering Polyxenidas to refit & build ships. He spent winter in Phrygia, gathering assistance from all sides, including Gallograecia. Eumenes joined Livius at Canae with 2000 infantry & 500 cavalry, & they raided enemy territory with 5,000 men, gaining much plunder. 1.2 1:00.

9 1338 In Phocaea, revolution favoring Antiochus emerged, driven by grievances like Roman occupation, tribute, & corn scarcity. Rhodians sent 36 ships, & Livius sailed to Hellespont with 37 vessels, stopping at "The Haven of Achaeans" & Ilium before attacking Sestus, which surrendered after hierophants intervened. 1.5 1:15.

10 1339 Polyxenidas, seeking revenge against Pausistratus, offered to betray Antiochus' fleet in exchange for restoration to Rhodes. Pausistratus, skeptical, demanded written promise, which Polyxenidas provided. Polyxenidas then dispersed his fleet, pretending to prepare for battle, while Pausistratus followed suit, sending ships to Halicarnassus & Samos, unaware of deception. 1.9 1:35.

11 1340 A soldier revealed Antiochus' fleet preparations to Pausistratus, but he didn't believe it. Polyxenidas launched 70 decked ships, divided into 2 squadrons, & sailed to Panhormus, while Nicander led troops to attack from land. Pausistratus' fleet was defeated, & he was killed. Only 5 Rhodian & 2 Coan ships escaped. 2.6 2:10.

12 1341 Abydos surrendered to Livius after Rhodian defeat. Livius abandoned siege & sailed to Phocaea, raiding coast & rescuing prisoners. Eumenes joined him, & they sailed to Samos. Rhodes, grieving & angry at treachery, sent 20 ships under Eudamus' command, who was considered more cautious leader. 1.8 1:30.

13 1342 Polyxenidas attempted to attack Roman fleet but was thwarted by storm. Romans sailed to Samos, joined by Rhodian fleet, & then proceeded to Ephesus, where they lay off harbour entrance, anchoring & disembarking marines to devastate country. enemy garrison sortied, recovering plunder & driving them back. 2 1:40.

14 1343 Lucius Aemilius Regillus took command of fleet at Piraeus, joined by Epicrates & others. They sailed to Chios, where Timasicrates arrived with 2 quinqueremes, warning of king's ships in area. Aemilius proceeded to Samos, took over fleet from Livius, & called council to discuss tactics. 1.1 :55.

15 1344 Eumenes opposed Livius' plan to block harbour, arguing it would be ineffective & leave Romans exposed at sea. Eudamus also disapproved, while Epicrates suggested sending part of fleet to Lycia to gain Patara as an ally. council decided to sail to Ephesus with whole fleet instead. 1.3 1:05.

16 1345 Livius sailed to Lycia with fleet to gain Patara as an ally. He stopped in Rhodes, where he received approval & additional ships. Though they reached Patara, rough seas & strong garrison forced them to anchor at Phoenicus. After fierce battle, Livius' troops emerged victorious but with losses, & he abandoned attempt on Patara, returning to Greece & eventually Italy. 1.7 1:25.

17 1346 Aemilius sailed to Jasus with his fleet, intending to attack city, but was persuaded by Rhodians & Eumenes to spare it due to their common nationality & city's wretched state. He then sailed to Loryma, where he considered attacking Patara but ultimately abandoned plan & returned to Samos. 1.7 1:25.

18 1347 Seleucus attacked Eumenes' kingdom while he was away, ravaging territories & besieging Pergamum. Antiochus joined him with vast army, including 4,000 Gaulish mercenaries, to devastate Pergamum's territory. Eumenes returned, skirmished with enemy, & was joined by Roman & Rhodian fleets at Elea, prompting Antiochus to seek peace talks. 1.8 1:30.

19 1348 Eumenes refused to negotiate peace terms with Antiochus, arguing that it would be dishonorable & invalid without Roman consent. He convinced Aemilius to delay talks until consul arrived. Antiochus continued his destruction, plundering Elea, Pergamum, & "Plain of Thebe". Aemilius & Eumenes sailed to protect Adramytteum. 1.4 1:10.

20 1349 Diophanes led 1,000 infantry & 100 cavalry from Achaia to Pergamum, where they observed Antiochus' troops, numbering 4,000 infantry & 600 cavalry, in disarray. Diophanes attacked, catching enemy off guard, & routed them, covering plain with bodies. He retired to city walls, earning great glory for Achaeans. 2.3 1:55.

21 1350 Diophanes' Achaean troops again defeated Antiochus' forces, forcing Seleucus to withdraw from Pergamene soil. Antiochus ravaged Peraea, capturing several cities, & returned to Sardis via Thyatira. Roman fleet, with Eumenes & Rhodians, sailed to Mitylene, then Phocaea, plundering works of art & attempting to take city, but withdrew after Antiochus' reinforcements arrived. 1.5 1:15.

22 1351 Eumenes returned home to prepare for consul's crossing, while Roman & Rhodian fleets returned to Samos to block Polyxenidas. After funeral, Rhodians sailed to Rhodes, joining Pamphilidas' fleet, which had lifted siege of Daedala. Eudamus' fleet was augmented & sailed to Phaselis to await enemy. .9 :45.

23 1352 The Rhodian fleet, led by Eudamus, anchored off Eurymedon, aware of enemy's presence at Sida. Both fleets engaged next day, with Hannibal commanding left & Apollonius right. Eudamus' hasty advance led to confusion, leaving only 5 ships to face Hannibal's division initially. 1.7 1:25.

24 1353 The Rhodian fleet, despite initial confusion, dominated battle, sinking heptere & damaging several ships. Hannibal's division fled, & Rhodians, though exhausted, pursued them briefly. Eudamus sent Pamphilidas & Chariclitus to chase enemy, but they returned with captured heptere, towing it to Phaselis. Rhodians then sailed back to Rhodes, angry at not capturing entire fleet. 2.2 1:50.

25 1354 The Romans, rejoicing at Rhodian victory, sent Pamphilidas to reinforce fleet off Patara. Antiochus, seeking aid from Prusias, warned of Roman expansion, but consul & Africanus reassured Prusias of Roman friendship & loyalty, citing examples of their benevolence to other monarchs, including Masinissa, Philip, & Nabis. 2.1 1:45.

26 1355 Antiochus, despairing of Prusias' aid, focused on his fleet, hoping to counter Roman army. He sent Polyxenidas to battle Rhodian fleet, while besieging Notium to lure Roman fleet from Samos. Colophonians appealed to L. Aemilius for help, urging him to relieve city & gain command of sea. 2 1:40.

27 1356 The Roman fleet left Samos for Chios to resupply, but diverted to Teos after learning of provisions prepared for enemy. They pursued 15 pirate ships off Myonnesus, but pirates escaped into harbour. Romans lay offshore, then abandoned task & arrived at Teos next day, plundering surrounding country with 5,000 men. 1.8 1:30.

28 1357 The Teians, facing Roman devastation, sent deputation to plead innocence. praetor demanded wine supplies, threatening continued raids. Polyxenidas, with king's fleet, anchored at Macris, opposite Myonnesus, planning to block harbour & attack Romans. However, Romans moved to other harbour, foiling his plan. 1.7 1:25.

29 1358 The Romans, unaware of Polyxenidas' proximity, alerted by countryman & hastily assembled their fleet. Amidst chaos, praetor assigned ships their places, forming battle line. Eudamus' Rhodians brought up rear, & fleet sailed out in formation, soon spotting enemy fleet, which deployed into line, threatening to envelop Roman right. 1.8 1:30.

30 1359 The Roman & Rhodian fleet engaged enemy, with 80 ships on Roman side & 89 on king's side. Romans had advantage in bravery, ship strength, & fire-ships. They broke through enemy's center, surrounded & sank many ships, & Polyxenidas fled. enemy lost 42 ships, while Romans lost 2 & had several damaged. 1.8 1:30.

31 1360 Antiochus, alarmed after his naval defeat, withdrew his garrison from Lysimachia & raised siege of Colophon, retreating to Sardis. He sought help from Ariarathes & prepared for battlefield decision. Romans, victorious, sailed to Ephesus, then Chios, where they repaired ships & sent fleet to Hellespont to transport troops. 1.7 1:25.

32 1361 The Roman fleet occupied Phocaea's harbors & praetor attempted to negotiate surrender. When city resisted, Romans attacked, breaching walls. After fierce fight, Phocaeans requested truce & eventually surrendered. Despite praetor's orders, Roman soldiers sacked city, but he protected free men & restored their city & laws. 2.2 1:50.

33 1362 The consul's army marched through Thrace, receiving news of Roman fleet's victory at Myonnesus & evacuation of Lysimachia. They found Lysimachia well-stocked & rested before continuing through Chersonese to Hellespont. With King Eumenes' help, they crossed into Asia without opposition, then paused for religious observances. 1.1 :55.

34 1363 Heraclides, Antiochus' envoy, arrived at Roman camp to negotiate peace. He hoped to capitalize on Scipio's gentle nature & fact that his son was prisoner. Scipio's son had been captured under unclear circumstances, but was treated kindly by Antiochus. Heraclides requested an audience with consul. 1.3 1:05.

35 1364 Heraclides proposed peace terms: Antiochus would give up Asian cities, pay half war costs, & surrender all Asiatic possessions west of Taurus range. He advised Romans to be moderate & not oppressively expand their empire. However, Romans rejected these terms, demanding full war reparations & total withdrawal of Antiochus' garrisons from Asia. 1.4 1:10.

36 1365 Heraclides, Antiochus' envoy, met privately with Scipio, offering to restore his son without ransom & share in sovereign power. Scipio refused, saying king's position was too weak for equal terms & advising him to accept any peace terms offered. Antiochus, feeling confident in his chances, rejected peace & prepared for war. 1.5 1:15.

37 1366 The consul's army marched to Ilium, where they offered sacrifices to Minerva. Eumenes joined them with small body of troops, & later returned to Pergamum to expedite supplies. Antiochus' camp was near Thyatira, with 60,000 infantry & 12,000 cavalry. He withdrew beyond Phrygius river, encamping near Magnesia ad Sipylum, & built fortified camp with fosse, rampart, & wall. 1.8 1:30.

38 1367 The consul marched for 5 days to Hyrcanian plain, then followed Antiochus' track, encamping 4 miles from enemy. force of 1,000 cavalry attacked Roman posts, but repelled. Romans crossed river on 3rd day & formed camp. picked force of 3000 attacked, but was repelled, with 100 killed & 100 taken prisoner. 1.3 1:05.

39 1368 The Romans, eager for battle, called on consul to lead them out. Cn. Domitius reconnoitred ground, & camp was moved closer to enemy. Roman army, 10,000 strong, formed up with 2 legions, 2 Latin legions, & auxiliary troops. cavalry numbered 3,800, with 800 from Eumenes. 2.1 1:45.

40 1369 Antiochus' army was diverse, with 16,000 infantry in phalanx formation, 32 ranks deep, flanked by elephants. right wing had 1,500 Gallograeci infantry, 3,000 cataphracti cavalry, & 16 elephants. left wing had 1,500 Gallograeci infantry, 2,000 Cappadocian infantry, & 3,000 cataphracti cavalry, with scythe chariots & dromedaries in front. 1.7 1:25.

41 1370 Antiochus' army was hindered by morning haze & rain, which obscured their view & weakened their bows & slings. scythe chariots, intended to throw Romans into confusion, instead turned against their own side. Eumenes ordered Cretan archers & cavalry to attack, causing horses to panic & flee. 2.1 1:45.

42 1371 The panic caused by scythe chariots spread to auxiliary troops, who fled & exposed line. Roman cavalry charged, routing left wing. phalanx's ranks broken, & Romans advanced, discharging javelins & evading elephants. Antiochus attacked Roman right, forcing their cavalry to flee. 1.5 1:15.

43 1372 M. Aemilius, with 2,000 camp guards, stopped fleeing Romans & turned them back to battle. Attalus arrived with 200 cavalry, & Antiochus fled. Romans won on both wings, plundered camp, & pursued enemy, killing many. camp guard fought bravely, but Romans eventually broke through, inflicting heavy slaughter. 1.8 1:30.

44 1373 The Romans killed 50,000 infantry & 3,000 cavalry, capturing 1,500 prisoners & elephants. Roman casualties 300 infantry, 24 cavalry, & 25 of Eumenes' army. After plundering camp, delegates from Thyatira & Magnesia ad Sipylum surrendered their cities. Antiochus fled to Sardis, then Apamea, with his family. .8 :40.

45 1374 The Romans received surrenders from Tralles, Magnesia, & Ephesus. Antiochus' envoys, Zeuxis & Antipater, negotiated peace terms. Scipio Africanus demanded: 15,000 Euboean talents, evacuation of Asia west of Taurus, & 20 hostages. Hannibal's surrender was also demanded. terms accepted, & delegates sent to Rome. 3.4 2:50.

46 1375 Manius Acilius celebrated triumph in Rome, showcasing 230 enemy standards, 3,000 pounds of silver, 113,000 Attic tetrachmi, & 249,000 cistophori. Procession included 45 golden crowns, spoils, & 36 prisoners. However, news arrived of defeat in Spain, with 6,000 Roman soldiers killed, & deputation from Placentia & Cremona requested reinforcements. 1.6 1:20.

47 1376 Consul C. Laelius returned from Gaul & enrolled colonists for Cremona & Placentia. He proposed founding 2 new colonies on land taken from Boii. senate received news of naval victory at Myonnesus & ordered thanksgivings. M. Fulvius Nobilior was elected consul, defeating M. Aemilius Lepidus & others. 1.1 1:05.

48 1377 A rumor spread in Rome that Antiochus captured Scipios & destroyed Roman camp, emboldening Aetolians to refuse orders & seek mercenaries. Valerius Antias reports that A. Terentius Varro & M. Claudius Lepidus brought this news to Rome, but story lacks confirmation & may be groundless. .9 :35.

49 1378 The Aetolians' insolent speech to senate, highlighting their past services & contrasting their bravery with Roman cowardice, angered senators. They refused to submit to Roman discretion or share Rome's friends & enemies. senate deemed them enemies, resolved to wage war, & ordered them to leave Rome & Italy within fortnight. 1.3 1:05.

50 1379 M. Fulvius received Aetolia & Cn. Manlius received Asia through ballot. Praetors' assignments: Sp. Postumius Albinus (civic & alien jurisdiction), M. Sempronius Tuditanus (Sicily with 1 legion & fleet), Q. Fabius Pictor (Sardinia), Q. Fabius Labeo (naval command), L. Plautius Hypsaeus (Hither Spain), & L. Baebius Dives (Further Spain with 1,000 infantry & 500 cavalry). Reinforcements: 4,000 Roman infantry & 200 cavalry for Asia, 8,000 infantry & 400 cavalry from Latins & allies for both provinces. 1.6 1:20.

51 1380 A dispute between Pontifex Maximus P. Licinius & Flamen Quirinalis Q. Fabius Pictor arose over Pictor's sacred duties vs. his praetorship in Sardinia. senate & Assembly debated, with orders, sureties, fines, & appeals. Religion prevailed, & Pictor was ordered to obey Licinius, but fine was remitted. 1.3 1:05.

52 1381 M. Aurelius Cotta & deputation from Antiochus arrived in Rome, followed by Eumenes & Rhodians. Eumenes addressed senate, thanking them for their help & congratulating them on their victories. senate urged him to request reward, but he modestly deferred, leading to friendly contest over who should initiate offer. 1.8 1:30.

53 1382 Eumenes addressed senate, warning that declaring Greek city-states free would empower Rhodes & threaten his own kingdom. He highlighted his loyalty & military support to Rome, requesting consideration for his dynasty's services. He suggested that if Rome withdrew from Asia, he was most worthy ally to occupy conquered territories. 4.9 4:05.

54 1383 The Rhodian envoy spoke, highlighting their friendship with Rome & services rendered. They pleaded for Greek city-states' liberty, arguing that Rome's glory & policy should align. They suggested granting Eumenes alternative territories, allowing Rome to maintain its principles & protect Greek freedoms, consistent with its past actions. 4.5 3:45.

55 1384 Antiochus' envoys pleaded for pardon, acknowledging king's fault. senate confirmed peace granted by L. Scipio & ratified treaty with Antipater. senate decided to send 10 commissioners to settle affairs in Asia, assigning territory to Eumenes & Rhodes, & exempting some cities from taxation. 1.2 1:00.

56 1385 The senate assigned territories to Eumenes & Rhodes, with Eumenes receiving Lycaonia, Phrygias, & other regions, & Rhodes receiving Lycia, Caria, & other areas. Rhodians requested exemption for Soli in Cilicia, but Antiochus' envoys refused, citing treaty provisions. senate offered to intervene, but Rhodes prioritized peace over pressing issue.1.7 1:25.

57 1386 Deputies from Massilia reported that praetor L. Baebius was intercepted by Ligurians, wounded, & later died in Massilia. P. Junius Brutus was sent to replace him in Further Spain. L. Aemilius Paulus defeated Lusitanians, killing 18,000 & capturing 2300. colony of Bononia was founded with 3,000 colonists. 6 men, including T. Quinctius Flamininus & M. Porcius Cato, competed for censorship, with Manius Acilius Glabrio facing impeachment. 2.3 1:55.

58 1387 T. Quinctius Flamininus & M. Claudius Marcellus elected censors. L. Aemilius Regillus celebrated naval triumph, displaying 49 golden crowns, 34,200 Attic tetrachmas, & 132,300 "cistophori". senate ordered public thanksgivings for L. Aemilius' successes in Spain. L. Scipio sought surname "Asiaticus", boasting of his services in senate & Assembly. 1.3 1:05.

59 1388 L. Scipio celebrated his triumph, decreeing 224 military standards, 134 town models, & large quantities of treasure: 224,000 Attic tetrachmas, 331,070 "cistophori," 140,000 gold pieces of Macedonian coinage, 1424 pounds of silver plate, & 1024 pounds of gold plate. Thirty-two prisoners led before his chariot. 1 :50.

60 1389 Q. Fabius Labeo sailed to Crete, where Cydonia was at war with Gortynia & Gnossus, & Roman prisoners held. He ordered cities to release prisoners & send representatives. Only Gortynia complied, but eventually 4,000 prisoners restored, & Fabius was granted triumph. 1.2 1:00.

38 185 (568)
Arraignment of Scipio Africanus

60 111.1 1:32:35 111.1

1 1390 Amynander, exiled king of Athamania, plotted to regain his throne with Aetolian help. 52 conspirators, divided into 4 groups, seized key cities without disturbance. On fixed day, they expelled Macedonian garrisons, & Amynander re-entered with 1,000 Aetolians. All cities except Theium & Athenaeum surrendered, restoring his monarchy. 1.7 1:25.

2 1391 Philip marched on Athamania with 6000 men, leaving 4000 at Gomphi. He attempted to retake Argithea with 2000 men but was thwarted by storm & Athamanian resistance. His army retreated, leaving many dead & arms behind. Xeno's 1000 men later defeated, with few escaping. 1.9 1:35.

3 1392 Amynander sent delegations to Rome & Scipios, seeking peace & blaming Philip for war. Aetolia expanded its territory, gaining Amphilochia, Aperantia, & Dolopia. However, they received news of Antiochus' defeat & arrival of Roman consul Fulvius in Greece, prompting them to seek help from Rhodes & Athens. 1.8 1:30.

4 1393 Fulvius besieged Ambracia, building 2 camps & fort, & preparing rampart & fosse. Aetolian council assembled at Stratus, deciding to divide their forces. Eupolemus led 1,000 light infantry into city, while Nicander planned night attack on Epirot camp, but instead ravaged Acarnania. 1.3 1:05.

5 1394 Fulvius attacked Ambracia from 5 points, using siege engines & scythe blades. defenders resisted, using lead, stones, & beams to damage rams. Nicander led 500 Aetolians into city, planning night attack on Roman works. However, supporting attack from outside didn't materialize, & attempt failed. 1.7 1:25.

6 1395 The Aetolians attacked Roman siege works at 3 points, using torches, pitch, & fire-darts. Romans responded, & fierce battle ensued at one point. Aetolians retreated without achieving their goal, feeling betrayed by lack of support from Nicander. They abandoned further sorties & fought from walls. 1.4 1:10.

7 1396 Perseus abandoned siege of Amphilochia, returning to Macedonia. Aetolians defended their coast against Pleuratus' 60 ships. At Ambracia, Romans battered walls, but citizens resisted. secret passage was dug, discovered, & countered with trench. An underground battle ensued, with novel devices used to repel enemy. 2.3 1:55.

8 1397 Aetolians sought peace with Rome, citing their dire situation. Envoys Phaeneas & Damoteles begged consul Fulvius to spare Ambracia, recalling Aetolia's past alliance & services against Philip. Fulvius demanded disarmament, 1,000 talents (half upfront), & treaty binding Aetolia to Rome's friends & enemies. 1.7 1:25.

9 1398 Aetolian envoys captured by Acarnanians, halting peace talks. Amynander, with safe-conduct, joined Roman camp, concerned for Ambracia. He persuaded city to surrender, & Aetolians accepted terms: 500 Euboean talents (200 immediate, 300 over 6 years), prisoner restoration, & relinquishing certain cities. 2.1 1:45.

10 1399 The Roman consul received Aetolian delegates at Amphilochian Argos, accepting their surrender. He sent them to Rome, where they faced opposition due to Philip's accusations. senate refused to listen, but Athenian envoy Leon persuaded them with speech, likening Aetolia to calm sea disturbed by external forces. 1 :50.

11 1400 Aetolia accepted Roman dominance, promising not to aid enemies of Rome & to restore deserters, refugees, & prisoners. They surrendered 40 hostages, excluded Cephallania, & agreed to pay an indemnity in gold or silver. Aetolia renounced claims to cities & territories lost during war. 1.5 1:15.

12 1401 Consul Cneius Manlius took over troops from L. Scipio in Ephesus, praising their valor against Antiochus. He encouraged them to war against Gauls, who had assisted Antiochus. Attalus, brother of Eumenes, joined with 1,000 infantry & 500 cavalry, while Athenaeus followed with additional forces. 1.5 1:15.

13 1402 After crossing Maeander, army marched to Hiera Come, then to Harpasus, where they met Athenaeus with 1,000 infantry & 300 cavalry. consul reduced revolted stronghold, then marched to Antiochia, where Seleucus provided corn for army, including Attalus' troops, after brief dispute. 1.9 1:35.

14 1403 The army captured Eriza & advanced to Thabusion, near Cibyra. Moagetes, tyrant, sent envoys with golden crown, but consul demanded 500 talents in 3 days, threatening to plunder city. Moagetes pleaded poverty, but ultimately agreed to pay 100 talents & 10,000 medimni of corn. 1.8 1:30.

15 1404 The army marched through Sinda, past Caralite marshes, & sacked Lacos. They relieved Isionde, granting Termessus peace for 50 talents. They then marched through Pamphylia, accepting surrenders & plundering fields, before reaching Sagalassus, which agreed to pay 50 talents, 20,000 medimni of wheat & barley for peace. 2.1 1:45.

16 1405 Gauls, led by Brennus, marched into Dardani, then split into 2 groups. One, led by Lonorius & Lutarius, went to Thrace, capturing Lysimachia & Chersonese. They crossed into Asia, reunified, & assisted Nicomedes in Bithynia. Only 10,000 of original 20,000 armed, but they terrorized Asia, dividing it into 3 parts & exacting tribute. 2.4 2:00.

17 1406 The consul rallied his soldiers, acknowledging Gauls' fierce reputation but noting their degeneration in Asia. He cited Roman victories over Gauls, saying their ferocity wanes when faced with steady courage. He warned his men to resist Asia's allure & emphasized credit they'll gain by conquering Gauls. 3.2 2:40.

18 1407 The consul sent messengers to friendly Gaulish chief Eposognatus, then marched to Axylon, treeless region where inhabitants used cow-dung for fuel. Romans defeated sudden Gaulish cavalry attack & built bridge across Sangarius River, where they met priests of Mater Magna who prophesied Roman victory. 2.4 2:00.

19 1408 The Gauls occupied 3 mountains: Olympus (Tolostobogii), Magaba (Tectosagi), & 3rd (Trocmi). Their leaders, Ortiagon, Comboiomarus, & Gaulotus, hoped to wear out Romans by holding high ground, using terrain to their advantage. They built defenses & relied on stones from rocky ground for weapons. .9 :45.

20 1409 The consul prepared for battle by gathering missile weapons & encamping near Olympus. He sent Attalus with 500 cavalry to reconnoiter, but they routed by larger Gaulish force. Next day, consul surveyed mountain, noting 3 possible roads. He divided his army into 3 divisions & began ascent, with 500 cavalry & elephants remaining at base. 1.7 1:25.

21 1410 The Gauls sent 4,000 men to seize height, but Romans advanced with missile weapons. battle was initially even, but Romans' variety of weapons soon gained upper hand. Gauls, powerless against distant attacks, suffered heavy casualties, with few surviving. Romans took heights, causing panic in Gaulish camp. 2.6 2:10.

22 1411 L. Manlius & C. Helvius joined consul, & legions advanced after light infantry. consul rallied his troops, pointing to fallen Gauls, & led missile attack on camp. Gauls driven back, & Romans hurled javelins at those defending gates, piercing their shields & gaining entry. 1.5 1:15.

23 1412 The Gauls fled in panic, with most falling to their deaths from heights. Romans pursued, killing or capturing many. C. Helvius' division plundered camp, gaining an unfair share of booty. Estimates of dead ranged from 10,000 (Valerius Antias) to 40,000 (Claudius), with 40,000 prisoners taken. 1.8 1:30.

24 1413 A centurion violated female prisoner, Orgiagon's wife, & demanded gold for her release. She sent slave to her friends, who brought gold & killed centurion. She presented his head to her husband, revealing outrage & her revenge. Her honor was maintained throughout her life. 1.6 1:20.

25 1414 The consul met with Tectosagi envoys, but they delayed negotiations. Attalus met with their representatives, but no agreement was reached. Gauls plotted against consul, selecting 1,000 men for task. However, their plan was foiled, & Romans routed them, killing most & taking no prisoners. 2.5 2:05.

26 1415 The consul inspected mountain, then led his army in four divisions to attack Gauls. enemy had 50,000 infantry, 10,000 dismounted cavalry, & 4,000 auxiliaries. Romans repeated their previous tactics, overwhelming Gauls with missiles. consul then advanced legions, expecting Gauls to flee at sight of standards. 1.3 1:05.

27 1416 The Gauls fled their camp, with few reaching safety. Romans pursued, killing 8,000 in flight. survivors crossed Halys. consul counted prisoners & booty, amassed from Gauls' years of rapine. Gauls, wounded & stripped, sued for peace & directed to Ephesus. 1.3 1:05.

28 1417 In Rome, censors T. Quinctius Flamininus & M. Claudius Marcellus revised Senate roll, selecting P. Scipio Africanus to lead for 3rd time & removing only four members. They also contracted for Capitol & road construction. Heavy floods hit Rome twelve times. M. Fulvius conquered Cephallania, but Same revolted, leading to siege. 1.6 1:20.

29 1418 The Samaeans defended their city with inner walls & sorties, but Achaean slingers from Aegium, Patrae, & Dymae, with their accurate & long-range slings, kept them back. After four-month siege, Romans breached wall, captured city, & sold population into slavery. 1.6 1:20.

30 1419 The consul sailed to Peloponnesus, where Aegium & Lacedaemonians had urged him to go. Philopoemen sought to change meeting place of League from Aegium to each city in turn. consul supported Argos, & Lacedaemonians requested help against exiles on Laconian coast. 1.3 1:05.

31 1420 Philopoemen championed exiles' cause, & Achaeans decreed that Lacedaemonians must surrender those responsible for attack on Las or face treaty breach. Lacedaemonians, fearing Philopoemen's plan to hand them over to exiles, executed 30 men, denounced Achaean alliance, & surrendered to Rome, begging protection. 1.2 1:00.

32 1421 The Achaeans declared war on Lacedaemon, & consul called council to resolve issue. Both sides sent delegates to Rome, with Achaeans divided on whether to leave decision to Senate or claim their right to execute their decree. Senate's reply was ambiguous, leaving both sides unsure. 1.3 1:05.

33 1422 Philopoemen led Achaean army into Lacedaemonian territory, demanding authors of revolt. Despite promises of safety, exiles attacked Lacedaemonians, & crowd killed 17 men. next day, 63 more arrested, found guilty, & handed over for punishment, despite Philopoemen's initial protection. 1.8 1:30.

34 1423 The Achaeans ordered Lacedaemon to destroy its walls, expel foreign mercenaries, & restore exiles. Lacedaemonians complied, but bitterly resented restoration of exiles. Achaeans arrested & sold former slaves, using funds to restore colonnade at Megalopolis & reclaim territory. Lacedaemon lost its strength & discipline of Lycurgus, maintained for 800 years. 1.4 1:10.

35 1424 M. Fulvius returned to Rome for elections, refusing to allow votes for enemy M. Aemilius Lepidus. New consuls M. Valerius Messala & C. Livius Salinator elected, with 6 praetors. M. Fulvius returned to his army with an extension of office. 12 gilt shields hung in Capitol, & statues erected. Games exhibited 3 to 5 times. Provinces & armies assigned, with Liguria falling to Messala & Gaul to Salinator. Praetors balloted for commands, with jurisdictions assigned. 1.5 1:15.

36 1425 The senate decreed: legions in Gaul to transfer to Bruttium (3000 infantry, 200 cavalry); army in Sicily to disband; legions in Spain to remain; praetors to take reinforcements. Intercessions ordered for 3 days due to darkness & sacrifices for 9 days due to shower of stones. Census: 258,318 citizens. 1.6 1:20.

37 1426 Cn. Manlius, consul & proconsul, received deputations from cities & nations west of Taurus, congratulating him on victories over Antiochus & Gauls. They brought golden crowns & offers of peace. Ariarathes offered 600 talents of silver for forgiveness. Gauls told to wait for Eumenes' arrival. 1.9 1:35.

38 1427 The treaty between Antiochus & Rome was settled, with terms including: Antiochus shall not attack Roman allies or sail to Europe; withdraw from cities west of Taurus; pay 12,000 Attic talents of silver (each weighing 80 Roman pounds); pay King Eumenes 350 talents & 127 talents in place of corn. 2.8 2:20.

39 1428 The consul took oath to observe treaty, & Q. Minucius & L. Manlius demanded oath from Antiochus. fleet burned or broke up 50 decked ships at Patara. Eumenes received Antiochus' elephants & half of Ariarathes' indemnity was remitted. commissioners decided each city's case, granting immunity or tribute to Eumenes. 2.2 1:50.

40 1429 Manlius & 10 commissioners settled peace terms with Gauls & proceeded to Hellespont. They transported army to Europe, where they attacked by 10,000 Thracians in narrow pass. Romans fought irregularly, hampered by terrain & their own baggage, but ultimately repelled Thracians. 2.5 2:05.

41 1430 The Roman army navigated treacherous pass, losing Q. Minucius Thermus & many soldiers. They defeated Thrausi tribe & marched through Thrace, facing caution but no opposition. They reached Apollonia, where they wintered, after separate force led by Muttines defeated 15,000 Thracians with 400 cavalry & few elephants. 2.2 1:50.

42 1431 M. Valerius held consular elections, & M. Aemilius Lepidus & C. Flaminius elected. Praetors also elected, with assignments in Rome, Sicily, Sardinia, Tarentum, & Gaul. L. Minucius & L. Manlius handed over to Carthage for beating ambassadors. senate assigned Liguria to both consuls, despite Lepidus' protests. 2 1:40.

43 1432 M. Aemilius, consul & rival of M. Fulvius, presented suborned delegates from Ambracia to senate, accusing Fulvius of war crimes. Fulvius' supporter argued that charges baseless & politically motivated, citing similar accusations against other generals. He refused to allow decree to pass in Fulvius' absence. 2 1:40.

44 1433 Aemilius continued to attack Fulvius, delaying proceedings. Eventually, senate resolved to restore Ambracia's property, freedom, & laws, with pontifical college deciding on temple ornaments. Aemilius added clause denying Ambracia's capture. consuls left for their province, & Cn. Manlius returned, requesting triumph, which was opposed by most of 10 commissioners. 1.4 1:10.

45 1434 Cn. Manlius was accused of misconduct during his campaign against Antiochus. He allegedly attempted to provoke king, ignored warnings from commissioners, & attacked Gallograeci without declaration of war. His actions seen as personal marauding expedition rather than legitimate Roman war, & his triumph was opposed. 2 1:40.

46 1435 The speaker criticizes Cn. Manlius' campaign against Gallograeci, calling it personal expedition rather than legitimate Roman war. He argues that enemy was not real threat, & that Roman army's successes due to Fortune rather than Manlius' leadership. He also emphasizes importance of following proper procedures & consulting senate & people before declaring war. 2.3 1:55.

47 1436 Manlius defended his triumph, citing his victories over 100,000 enemies, killing or capturing 40,000, & storming 2 camps. He argued that his commissioners, Furius & Aemilius, unfairly opposing him, & that his campaign had freed Asian cities from Gaulish thraldom, ending tribute payments & human sacrifices. 2.2 1:50.

48 1437 Manlius defended his triumph, citing victories over 100,000 enemies & freeing Asian cities from Gaulish thraldom. He argued that commissioners Furius & Aemilius unfairly opposing him, & that his campaign ended tribute payments & human sacrifices. He sought approval from senate, citing his achievements. 3 2:40.

49 1438 Manlius defended his campaign, arguing that he had to attack enemy on unfavorable ground to win. He cited examples of other generals who had done same & achieved victory. He dismissed accusations of recklessness & blamed envy for opposition to his triumph, asking senate for indulgence. 2 1:40.

50 1439 The senate granted Cn. Manlius triumph after his friends & relatives intervened. focus then shifted to controversy surrounding P. Scipio Africanus, who was put on trial by Petillii. trial sparked debate about holding powerful citizens accountable to law, with some arguing it was necessary for liberty. 2 1:40.

51 1440 Scipio Africanus was put on trial by Petillii, who accused him of luxurious living, accepting bribes, & abusing his power. Scipio defended himself, highlighting his victories & services to

Rome. He then led Assembly to Capitol to offer thanksgivings, leaving tribunes alone, & was hailed as hero by Roman people. 2.3 1:55.

52 1441 Scipio Africanus refused to defend himself in court, considering it beneath him. tribunes criticized his absence, but Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, political opponent, surprisingly supported Scipio, acknowledging his lofty position & honors, & declaring that trying him would be greater ignominy for Rome than for Scipio himself. 2 1:40.

53 1442 Tiberius Gracchus defended Scipio Africanus, arguing that trying him would be greater ignominy for Rome than for Scipio. senate praised Gracchus, & proceedings against Scipio dropped. Scipio spent his life at Liternum, & on his deathbed, ordered his burial & monument there, refusing funeral rites from his "ungrateful country". 1.8 1:30.

54 1443 After Scipio Africanus' death, his enemies, led by M. Porcius Cato, sought to tarnish his reputation. They proposed an investigation into money seized from Antiochus, which was opposed by L. Scipio & Mummii. Cato's speech swayed vote, & investigation was approved by Tribes. 1.5 1:15.

55 1444 Q. Terentius Culleo was appointed to investigate money seized from Antiochus. L. Scipio & others put on trial, with Scipio accused of embezzling 6000 pounds of gold & 480 of silver. He was found guilty, along with A. Hostilius & C. Furius. fines likely 400,000 sesterces, not 2,400,000. 1.9 1:35.

56 1445 There are many variations in accounts of Scipio Africanus' later years, impeachment, death, funeral, & tomb. Some say he died in Rome, others in Liternum, where his monument & statues remain. Even speeches attributed to Scipio & Gracchus contradict each other, making it difficult to discern truth. 2.4 2:00.

57 1446 Scipio's daughters married to P. Cornelius Nasica & Tiberius Gracchus, but circumstances are unclear. story suggests Gracchus intervened to prevent L. Scipio's imprisonment, leading to betrothal between Gracchus & Scipio's daughter, which was finalized at senate dinner, without consulting Scipio's wife, who was initially upset but ultimately pleased. 1.1 :55.

58 1447 P. Scipio Nasica appealed to tribunes on behalf of L. Scipio, highlighting family's achievements & glory. He praised L. Scipio's military victories, including battle of Magnesia, & noted that peace treaty was granted on advice of 10 commissioners, absolving L. Scipio of wrongdoing. 1.9 1:35.

59 1448 Nasica defended L. Scipio, arguing that peace terms with Antiochus not excessive, given king's defeat. He highlighted vast territory taken from Antiochus & gold & silver displayed in L. Scipio's triumph. He warned that imprisoning L. Scipio would bring shame to Rome, not just Cornelii family. 1.6 1:20.

60 1449 Terentius demanded L. Scipio repay sum owed to treasury, threatening imprisonment if he failed. Gracchus intervened, allowing sale of Scipio's property to repay debt but refusing to let him be imprisoned. Scipio's property was seized, but amount raised was insufficient, & he was supported by relatives & friends instead. 1.4 1:10.

39 185 - 82 (568 - 71) 3
Bacchanalia in Rome & Italy
56 95.6 1:19:40 21.87

1 1450 In Liguria, Roman consuls waged war against rugged & mobile enemy, ideal for honing military discipline. terrain was challenging, with steep roads & ambush threats. enemy was lightly armed & quick, never allowing moment's peace. Romans faced scarce food & plunder, relying solely on their arms & men. 1.2 1:00.

2 1451 The Roman consuls, C. Flaminius & M. Aemilius, successfully waged war against Ligurians, with both consuls accepting surrenders, disarming & defeating enemy, & constructing roads. They subdued Apuani, brought peace to neighbors, & advanced into Gaul, establishing roads & vowing temples to Diana & Juno. 1.6 1:20.

3 1452 In Gaul, praetor M. Furius seized arms from peaceful Cenomani, sparking senate investigation. Furius was ordered to restore their arms & leave his province. Meanwhile, Latin allies complained about citizens migrating to Rome, leading to crackdown: 12,000 Latins forced to return to their registered cities. .8 :40.

4 1453 M. Fulvius, returning from Aetolia & Cephallenia, requested triumph & honors for gods. Tribune M. Albutius threatened to veto, citing consul M. Aemilius' opposition. Fulvius argued that Aemilius' personal grudge shouldn't delay his triumph, & senate supported him, urging tribune to lift his veto. 2 1:40.

5 1454 Tiberius Gracchus persuaded senate to decree triumph for M. Fulvius, despite tribune Albutius' opposition. Fulvius celebrated his triumph on December 23, displaying golden crowns, silver, gold, statues, armor, & weapons. He rewarded military officers & soldiers, giving each private soldier 25 denarii, & more to centurions & cavalrymen. 2.5 2:05.

6 1455 C. Flaminius conducted consular elections, & Spurius Postumius Albinus & Q. Marcius Philippus elected. new praetors also appointed. Cneius Manlius Vulso celebrated his triumph over Asiatic Gauls, delayed due to concerns about prosecution & introduction of luxury from Asia, which was changing Roman customs. 1.4 1:10.

7 1456 Cn. Manlius Vulso's triumph featured 200 golden crowns, silver, gold, coins, arms, & spoils. 52 enemy leaders paraded, & soldiers received rewards. senate ordered unpaid soldiers' stipends to be paid from triumphal funds, with quaestors paying 25.5 for every 1,000 ases. Omens & Games followed, with extended celebrations & new statues. 1.4 1:10.

8 1457 In 186 BC, consuls Sp. Postumius Albinus & Q. Marcius Philippus investigated domestic conspiracy sparked by Greek hierophant who introduced secret nocturnal mysteries in Etruria. mysteries involved debauchery, false witness, forgery, poisoning, & murder, perpetuated under cover of drum & cymbal noise. 1.3 1:05.

9 1458 A Greek hierophant's mysteries spread from Etruria to Rome, corrupting morals. Consul Postumius learned of conspiracy through P. Aebutius, young man targeted by his stepfather & mother, who sought to initiate him into Bacchanalia. Aebutius' relationship with freedwoman Hispala Fecenia helped uncover plot. 1.5 1:15.

10 1459 Hispala Fecenia, freedwoman & Aebutius' lover, learned of his plan to be initiated into Bacchanalia & warned him of dangers, revealing her own knowledge of corrupt rituals. She begged him to avoid initiation, describing orgies & violations that occurred, & refused to let him go until he promised to keep clear of rites. 1.5 1:15.

11 1460 Aebutius refused his mother's demand to be initiated into Bacchanalia, citing his relationship with Hispala. His mother & stepfather expelled him from home, & he sought help from his aunt Aebutia. consul Postumius, informed of situation, spoke with Aebutia, who confirmed youth's story & lamented his misfortunes. 1.3 1:05.

12 1461 Consul Postumius questioned Hispala, freedwoman, about Bacchanalia rites. She was frightened but eventually confessed to being initiated as girl. consul urged her to reveal more, warning that denial would result in harsher treatment if she was later confuted by another witness. 1.3 1:05.

13 1462 Hispala, freedwoman, revealed origins of Bacchanalia rites, which initially confined to women but later admitted men, leading to promiscuity & criminal behavior. She described rituals, including prophesying, torches, & human sacrifice, & estimated number of initiates to be nearly equal to Rome's population. 2.2 1:50.

14 1463 The senate thanked Consul Postumius for his careful investigation & granted him extraordinary powers to inquiry into Bacchanalia rites. They offered rewards for informers & ordered search & arrest of priests & participants, prohibiting further gatherings & rites. Various officials tasked with enforcing these measures. 1.8 1:30.

15 1464 Consul Postumius addressed Assembly, warning of Bacchanalia's dangers & describing nocturnal rites as conspiracy fueled by superstition, lust, & crime. He expressed concern about large number of participants, mostly women, & initiation of young men, questioning their suitability for military service. 2.4 2:00.

16 1465 Consul Postumius warned Assembly of Bacchanalia's dangers, citing their debauchery, lust, & crime. He urged citizens to prioritize their duty & support senate's efforts to suppress conspiracy, assuring them that their actions would be in accordance with gods' will & for common good. 2.7 2:15.

17 1466 The senate's resolutions read, offering rewards for information leading to capture of Bacchanalia participants. An edict forbade aiding fugitives, & guards posted at city gates, arresting many trying to escape. Over 7,000 implicated, & ringleaders Marcus & Caius Atinii, L. Opiternius, & Minius Cerrinius arrested & confessed. 1.3 1:05.

18 1467 The consuls investigated Bacchanalia, trying cases in country towns due to large number of fugitives. Those initiated but not actively involved imprisoned, while those who committed crimes like murder or fraud executed. Women handed over to relatives for punishment or executed publicly. senate banned Bacchanalian rites, allowing exceptions with strict conditions. 1.6 1:20.

19 1468 The senate decided on rewards for informers P. Aebutius & Hispala Fecenia, granting each 100,000 ases & exempting Aebutius from military service. Fecenia was given right to manage her property, choose her guardian, & marry free-born citizen without harm to her reputation. consuls ensured her safety. 1.4 1:10.

20 1469 Q. Marcius completed his inquiry & led 3,000 Roman infantry, 150 cavalry, & Latin allies against Apuani in Liguria. However, he was ambushed, losing 4,000 men, 3 standards, 11 ensigns, & many arms. He dispersed his army to conceal his losses, but defeat was remembered as "Marcian Pass". 1.3 1:05.

21 1470 C. Atinius defeated Lusitanians in Spain, killing 6,000, but died from wound. In Hither Spain, L. Manlius Acidinus fought Celtiberi, killing 12,000 & taking 2,000 prisoners, but his successor's inaction prevented subjugation. senate sent courier to hasten Calpurnius' departure to replace Atinius. 1.4 1:10.

22 1471 Intelligence from Spain was received during "Taurii" Games, followed by M. Fulvius' Games, featuring Greek actors, athletic contests, & lion hunts. Portents, including stone shower & fire from sky, led to religious services. hermaphrodite child was discovered in Umbria & put to death, & Gauls settled in Venetia without incident. 1.6 1:20.

23 1472 As year ended, Q. Marcius prepared to leave office, & S. Postumius held elections, choosing new consuls & praetors. Postumius reported finding 2 deserted colonies, Sipontum & Buxentum, & commissioners appointed to enroll colonists. Tensions with Macedonians simmered, fueled by Philip's grievances over peace terms & territorial losses. 1.7 1:25.

24 1473 Philip V of Macedon, despite temporary appeasement, continued to build his power & resources, increasing taxes, reopening mines, & encouraging population growth. New grievances arose, including protests from Thessalians, Perrhaebians, & Eumenes, & senate sent commissioners to settle disputes, convening council at Tempe in Thessaly. 1.8 1:30.

25 1474 Roman commissioners arbitrated disputes between Philip V of Macedon & Thessalians, Perrhaebians, & Athamanians. Cities like Philippopolis & Tricca contested, with Thessalians alleging forced seizure by Aetolians & Philip. Thessalians also complained of plundering, enslavement, & intimidation, appealing to Romans for protection & liberty. 2.5 2:05.

26 1475 Philip V of Macedon reversed roles, accusing Thessalians, Perrhaebians, & Athamanians of seizing towns & violating rights. He denied charges of waylaying envoys & interfering with trade. commissioners ruled that Philip's garrisons must withdraw from disputed cities, limiting his kingdom to ancient Macedonia, & established court to settle remaining disputes. 1.9 1:35.

27 1476 Commissioners in Thessalonica considered status of Thracian cities, with Eumenes' envoys arguing that Aenus & Maronea should be under Eumenes' control, not Philip's, citing decision of 10 commissioners & cities' proximity to Chersonese & Lysimachia. Maronites testified that Philip's troops occupied their city, suppressing liberty & law. 1.7 1:25.

28 1477 Philip V of Macedon addressed Romans, contesting their treatment of him. He argued that he had been refused restoration of Macedonian cities, despite his loyalty & assistance in war against Antiochus. He rejected Eumenes' claims to Thracian cities, citing decision of 10 commissioners, which only granted Eumenes Chersonese & Lysimachia. 2.5 2:05.

29 1478 The commissioners' reply to Philip V was compromise, leaving status of Thracian cities undecided. Philip's grievances against Romans would later fuel his son Perseus' war. In Rome, L. Manlius requested triumph for his Spanish victories, but was granted an ovation instead, displaying 52 golden crowns, 132 pounds of gold, 16,300 pounds of silver, & sentencing 7,000 men in Apulia for conspiracy. 1.4 1:10.

30 1479 Roman praetors C. Calpurnius & L. Quinctius joined forces in Baeturia & marched on Carpetania. Their armies routed by enemy, suffering 5,000 losses, & they withdrew to their camp, which was later found empty by Spaniards. Romans regrouped, crossed Tagus River, & formed battle line, preparing to face enemy. 1.9 1:35.

31 1480 The Spaniards attacked Roman divisions, but Roman centre held firm. Calpurnius led cavalry charge, inspiring infantry to advance. Romans swept away enemy, killing over 30,000 Spaniards. Only 3,000 escaped, & 132 standards taken. Roman losses 600, plus 150 native auxiliaries & some cavalry & tribunes. 2.5 2:05.

32 1481 Appius Claudius & M. Sempronius led army to victory in Liguria, with Appius Claudius defeating Ingauni & capturing 6 of their towns. Elections held, with Appius Claudius successfully campaigning for his brother Publius to be elected consul. L. Porcius Licinius was also elected consul, thanks to his moderate campaign among plebeians. new praetors elected C. Decimius Flavus, P. Sempronius Longus, P. Cornelius Cethegus, Q. Naevius Matho, C. Sempronius Blaesus, & A. Terentius Varro. 2 1:40.

33 1482 The senate heard arguments from Philip, Eumenes, & Thracian cities, then dispatched new commission to Greece & Macedonia to investigate. They ordered Philip's garrisons withdrawn from Aenus & Maronea & Thracian coast cleared. Achaeans rebuked for refusing to meet with commissioners & reminded to grant Roman envoys access to their council. 1.3 1:05.

34 1483 Philip, enraged by Roman commissioners' demands, massacred Maronites, blaming domestic quarrel. Appius demanded surrender of Onomastus & Casander, Philip's agents, to Rome for questioning. Philip agreed to send Casander but refused to hand over Onomastus, fearing his testimony. Casander was later poisoned to silence him. 1.6 1:20.

35 1484 Philip, anticipating renewed hostilities, sent his son Demetrius to Rome to clear his name & appease senate. Meanwhile, Philip defeated Thracian chiefs, took Amodocus prisoner, & urged barbarians to invade Italy. In Achaia, council condemned exiles Areus & Alcibiades to death for speaking against Achaean interests in Rome. 1.4 1:10.

36 1485 Roman commissioners arrived in Achaia, & council convened at Clitoris. Appius criticized Achaia's treatment of Lacedaemonians, including assassination of delegates & razing of walls. Lycortas defended Achaia's actions, stating they justified in taking up war against Lacedaemonians, who had attacked coastal cities, & that killing of delegates was done by Lacedaemonian refugees, not Achaeans. 2.7 2:15.

37 1486 Lycortas defended Achaia's actions, stating they abolished Lacedaemonian walls & laws imposed by tyrants, not Lycurgus. He asked Appius if Romans didn't similarly treat Capua & Campanians. Lycortas requested Romans make changes regarding Lacedaemonians without forcing Achaeans to break their oath. Only decision made was cancelling sentence against Areus & Alcibiades. 3.3 2:45.

38 1487 Provinces assigned to consuls & praetors. Praetors in Spain requested honors for their success & to bring home their army. two-day thanksgiving was declared, but senate delayed deciding on legions' return. Later, each consul was given 2 legions, & new praetors in Spain allowed to enroll 4,000 Roman infantry, 300 cavalry, 5,000 Latin infantry, & 500 Latin cavalry. 1.5 1:15.

39 1488 A dispute arose over vacant praetorship after C. Decimius' death. Q. Fulvius Flaccus, curule aedile designate, was top candidate but faced opposition due to holding 2 magistracies. senate ruled against him, but he refused to yield, leading to heated debate & ultimately, senate deciding to maintain current number of praetors. 2.5 2:05.

40 1489 The censorship election was highly contested, with notable candidates like Scipios & Cato. However, M. Porcius Cato stood out for his exceptional abilities, knowledge, & character. skilled warrior, lawyer, & orator, he was force to be reckoned with, leaving lasting legacy in his writings & speeches. 1.9 1:35.

41 1490 M. Porcius Cato, "novus homo", ran for censor despite noble opposition. He accused them of fearing his impartiality & courage. people elected him & his chosen colleague, L. Valerius. As censor, he tackled vices & restored morality. Meanwhile, Q. Naevius investigated poisoning charges, sentencing over 2000, & L. Postumius crushed herdsman conspiracy in Tarentum. 1.5 1:15.

42 1491 In Spain, A. Terentius captured Corbio, selling prisoners. praetors returned to Rome, & senate decreed triumphs for C. Calpurnius & L. Quinctius Crispinus. C. Calpurnius' triumph featured 83 golden crowns & 12,000 pounds of silver. Censors M. Porcius & L. Valerius revised senate roll, removing 7 names, including L. Quinctius Flamininus, with Cato delivering incriminating speeches. 1.9 1:35.

43 1492 Valerius Antias tells different story, but similar in lust & cruelty. consul, madly in love with woman from Placentia, boasted about his exploits & executed prisoner at her request during banquet. Cato gave Quinctius option to deny charges & go to trial or admit them & face disgrace. 1.1 :55.

44 1493 The censorship of Cato & Flaccus was severe, assessing female dress & ornaments valued at over 15,000 ases at 10 times their value, & slaves sold for 10,000 ases or more similarly. They improved infrastructure, constructing roads, sewers, & basilica, but their severity sparked feuds that lasted lifetime. 1.6 1:20.

45 1494 New consuls M. Claudius Marcellus & Q. Fabius Labienus took office, with Liguria as their province. Praetors received their assignments, including C. Valerius as Flamen, & L. Julius, who was tasked with stopping Transalpine Gauls from building town in Aquileia's territory, using force if necessary. 1 :50.

46 1495 P. Licinius Crassus, Pontifex Maximus, died, & C. Servilius Geminus was elected as his replacement. public funeral with gladiatorial games & feast was held, but storm forced crowd to seek shelter, fulfilling prophecy. rain of blood then occurred, requiring expiatory rites. Deputations from Macedonia flocked to Rome, seeking redress for grievances against Philip. 1.3 1:05.

47 1496 Demetrius, Philip's son, struggled to answer senate questions about his father's actions. When asked if he had memorandum from his father, he produced book with concise explanations & protests against commissioners' partiality. senate accepted his apologies & promised to send commission to Macedonia. 2 1:40.

48 1497 The senate's decision to send Demetrius to Rome ultimately led to his downfall due to jealousy. Lacedaemonians then addressed, & it was decided that exiles would be restored, sentences annulled, & Lacedaemon would remain in Achaean League. Q. Marcius was sent to Macedonia & Peloponnese to resolve ongoing conflicts. .9 :45.

49 1498 Philopoemen, Achaean captain-general, was captured by enemy while attempting to occupy Corone. Despite his age & recent illness, he refused to abandon his cavalry. enemy treated him with respect, & he was paraded through Messene, with crowd eager to see him. He was eventually taken to senate house for questioning. 2.1 1:45.

50 1499 Philopoemen was imprisoned in public treasury, underground chamber, due to magnanimity of his career. next day, population advocated for his mercy, but ruling party decided to execute him. He was poisoned, & his final concerns for his comrades' safety. His remains later honored with divine rites. 1.6 1:20.

51 1500 Prusias, under Roman pressure, sent soldiers to guard Hannibal's house, intending to deliver him to

Rome. Hannibal, anticipating this, had built secret exits, but they discovered. He then drank poison, cursing Prusias & invoking gods to avenge his broken hospitality. Thus ended Hannibal's life. 1.9 1:35.

52 1501 Scipio Africanus died around same time as Hannibal & Philopoemen, but exact year is disputed. Valerius Antias is proven wrong, & Scipio's death likely occurred before censorship of L. Valerius & M. Porcius. Scipio's death was not worthy of his career, & he was effectively banished, even in death. 1.4 1:10.

53 1502 Demetrius returned to Macedonia, & his popularity with people & perceived favor with Rome fueled tensions with his father Philip & brother Perseus. Philip, feeling threatened, led his army against Odrysae & built town in Deuriopus, naming it Perseis after his eldest son. 2.1 1:45.

54 1503 The Gauls, 12,000 in arms, surrendered to Marcellus & disarmed. They complained to Roman senate, explaining their peaceful intentions & appealing for mercy. senate rebuked them for entering Italy without permission but ordered their possessions restored & warned them to stay on their side of Alps. 1.9 1:35.

55 1504 The transalpine tribes apologized for their actions, & some elder tribesmen criticized Romans for being too lenient. Romans planned to colonize Aquileia with Latin settlers & sent commissioners to oversee settlement. Other colonies established in Mutina, Parma, & Saturnia, with land allocations ranging from 5 to 10 jugera per colonist. 1.2 1:00.

56 1505 A. Terentius fought successfully against Celtiberi, while P. Sempronius' illness kept Further Spain quiet. Q. Fabius had no notable achievements in Liguria. M. Marcellus returned to Rome, & new consuls & praetors elected. Hannibal died this year, according to Valerius Antias, with some famous Romans involved in incident. 1 :50.

40 181 - 78 (572 - 75) 3
Perseus & Demetrius
59 95.2 1:19:20 31.73

1 1506 The consuls & praetors drew their provinces, with Liguria assigned to both consuls. praetors received their assignments: Ogulnius Gallus (civic jurisdiction), Valerius (alien jurisdiction), Fulvius Flaccus (Hither Spain), Manlius (Further Spain), Caecilius Denter (Sicily), & Terentius Istra (Sardinia). consuls instructed to levy troops: 4 legions (5,200 infantry, 200 cavalry each) for Liguria, 7,000 infantry & 400 cavalry for Gaul, & 4,000 Roman infantry & 200 cavalry for Spain. 1.1 :55.

2 1507 A severe storm hit Rome, damaging buildings & statues, & was considered portent. Expiations performed, including sacrifice of 20 victims. Praetors sent to Spain after P. Sempronius' death. Legations from Eumenes, Pharnaces, Rhodians, Philip, Achaeans, & Lacedaemonians heard, & senate replied that commission would investigate their concerns. 1.2 1:00.

3 1508 Marcius reported that Philip had grudgingly complied with Senate demands, but would likely resume war soon. Philip relocated coastal city populations to Emathia, entrusting cities to Thracians & barbarians. Macedonians protested, cursing king. Philip grew paranoid, seeking to imprison & eliminate children of executed individuals. .9 :35.

4 1509 Theoxena, determined to save her sons from Philip's brutality, planned to kill them herself. Her husband Poris disagreed, & they fled with boys to Aenia. Caught at sea, Theoxena offered her sons choice: sword or poison. They died, & she & Poris leapt into sea, embracing each other. 2.1 1:45.

5 1510 Perseus, jealous of Demetrius' popularity, plotted against him, seeking to turn their father Philip against him. Philip's friends, hoping for power, aided Perseus, fueling Philip's suspicions. Demetrius, loyal to Rome, defended it against criticism, further arousing Philip's distrust. Perseus exploited this, warning Philip of Demetrius' alleged treason. 2.4 2:00.

6 1511 The Macedonian army performed lustration ceremony, marching between divided bitch's body. Philip's sons, Perseus & Demetrius, rode beside him, their ages 30 & 25. In sham fight, their divisions clashed fiercely, Demetrius' side emerging victorious. Perseus was annoyed, but his friends saw an opportunity to incriminate Demetrius. 1.1 :55.

7 1512 Demetrius invited Perseus to supper, but he refused. Both hosted banquets, where their sides joked about sham fight. spy was caught, & Demetrius, unaware, led his companions to appease Perseus. Perseus, informed of concealed swords, locked his door, & Demetrius, drunk, protested before returning to banquet. 1.3 1:05.

8 1513 Perseus accused Demetrius of attempting to kill him, & Philip, distressed, summoned both sons & 2 advisors. He lamented brothers' hatred, citing examples of fraternal harmony & conflict. He urged them to speak openly, warning that he would no longer listen to secret accusations. meeting ended in sorrowful silence. 3.1 2:35.

9 1514 Perseus accused Demetrius of plotting against him, citing sham fight & nighttime visit with armed companions. He appealed to Philip, their father, to listen to his concerns & protect him from his brother's alleged treachery. Perseus claimed Demetrius sought to kill him to become king. 2.8 2:40.

10 1515 Perseus appealed to Philip, their father, to protect him from Demetrius' alleged plots. He claimed Demetrius sought to kill him to become king, & that Romans supported Demetrius, seeking to gain control of Macedonia. Perseus declared that he had no one to trust but Philip, & no hope or security elsewhere. 1.9 1:35.

11 1516 Perseus accused Demetrius of plotting with T. Quinctius to become king, seeking to send Macedonian leaders to Rome to win their support. He denied seeking crown himself, praying his father would long reign & granting him heritage if he survived. He urged Philip to punish those threatening his life. 1.7 1:25.

12 1517 Demetrius, tearfully, defended himself against Perseus' accusations, claiming they prejudiced & manipulative. He argued that Perseus' own actions, not his, treacherous & that he had no need to kill his brother to become king, as he had favor of Romans & Macedonians. 3.3 2:45.

13 1518 Demetrius argued that Perseus' accusations contradictory & implausible, pointing out that he alleged multiple attempts on his life in single day, including during religious purification ceremony. Demetrius questioned how he could have planned murder & poison during day of rituals & banquets. 1.6 1:20.

14 1519 Demetrius defended himself, saying he had merely celebrated with friends & wasn't plotting against Perseus. He questioned why he would attack his father's house with only four men & no plan for escape. He asked his father to question men who had been with him, to clarify their intentions & actions. 1.9 1:35.

15 1520 Demetrius appealed to Philip, his father, to see through Perseus' jealousy & slander. He denied plotting against Perseus & emphasized his loyalty to their father & Macedonia. He asked Philip to preserve him, not just for his own sake, but for Philip's own interest & to prevent Perseus' tyranny after his death. 3.2 2:40.

16 1521 Philip decided to investigate Demetrius' character & behavior, rather than just accusations. This decision foreshadowed Macedonian war. Meanwhile, Roman consuls & praetors conducted campaigns in Liguria, Spain, & other provinces, with varying successes & losses. Terentius returned to Rome with 9,320 pounds of silver, 82 pounds of gold, & 7 golden crowns weighing 60 pounds. 1.8 1:30.

17 1522 A Roman commission arbitrated territorial dispute between Carthage & King Masinissa, who claimed land as his ancestral dominion. commission referred decision to senate. Meanwhile, in Liguria, Gauls retreated, & consuls considered disbanding their army. One consul was ordered to elect new magistrates in Rome, while other remained in Pisae to monitor potential threats from transalpine Gauls. 1.2 1:00.

18 1523 New consuls M. Baebius Tamphilus & P. Cornelius Lentulus assigned Liguria as their province. Praetors received their assignments: Q. Petilius (civic jurisdiction), Q. Fabius Maximus (alien), Q. Fabius Buteo (Gaul), Tiberius Claudius Nero (Sicily), M. Pinarius (Sardinia), L. Duronius (Apulia & Histria). Military requirements: 4 legions, 15,000 infantry, 800 cavalry, & naval crews for 20 ships. 1 :50.

19 1524 Alarmed by portents & pestilence, senate decreed sacrifices & consultation of Sacred Books. Intercessions held at all shrines for 1 day, & 3-day suspension of work was observed throughout Italy. Meanwhile, 8,000 infantry & 300 cavalry called up for Sardinia, but praetor was forced to take fewer due to mortality. 1.4 1:10.

20 1525 The senate received deputations from Eumenes, Ariarathes, Pharnaces, Lacedaemonian refugees, & Achaeans. Philip's envoys, Philocles & Apelles, watched for signs of Demetrius' alleged treachery with Romans. Demetrius, unaware of intrigues, tried to avoid suspicion, refraining from mentioning Romans or interacting with them, to placate his father. 1.2 1:00.

21 1526 Philip, to prevent idleness & suspicion of war with Rome, led his army to Maedica. He desired to ascend Mt. Haemus for strategic view, but decided not to take Demetrius, citing Antigonus' precept. Demetrius, aware of true reason, obeyed & showed approval, while Didas, part of Perseus' conspiracy, escorted him back to Macedonia, pretending friendship to extract secrets. 2 1:40.

22 1527 Philip marched to Maedica, then to Haemus mountain range, selecting few to accompany him. ascent was arduous, & they reached summit on 3rd day. After sacrificing to Jupiter & Sun, they descended, plundering their allies' land due to food shortages. Philip's suspicions of Demetrius grew. 2 1:40.

23 1528 Didas, sent to escort Demetrius, gained his trust by pretending to be indignant on his behalf. Demetrius shared his plan to flee to Rome, which Didas betrayed to Perseus & Philip. Heliodorus, Demetrius' friend, was imprisoned & tortured, but died without implicating anyone. Forged letters from T. Quinctius further incriminated Demetrius. 1.3 1:05.

24 1529 Perseus accused Demetrius of preparing to flee & bribing attendants, using forged letter as proof. Philip secretly ordered Demetrius' death to conceal his own plans against

Rome. Didas arranged sacrifice, poisoned Demetrius, & had him suffocated by Thyrsis & Alexander, ending young prince's life. 1.1 :55.

25 1530 L. Aemilius Paulus, commander in Liguria, was deceived by Ingauni envoys who pretended to seek peace but actually spying. They negotiated an armistice, gathered forces, & attacked Roman camp, breaching agreement. Paulus defended camp, sent for help, & waited for reinforcements from Baebius at Pisae. 1.6 1:20.

26 1531 Baebius' message & Marcellus' update alarmed

Rome. Marcellus explained that Fabius' army in Gaul was engaged with Histri & couldn't assist. Consuls urged to depart for Liguria, but delayed due to epidemic. They eventually left, empowered to raise troops en route. Praetors Petilius & Fabius ordered to enlist additional forces. 1.3 1:05.

27 1532 Aemilius, expecting no help, prepared simultaneous sortie from all four gates. He assigned cohorts & legions to each gate, leaving some to guard camp. Aemilius rallied his troops, condemning enemy's treachery & urging them to prove their courage, as they had against other foes. soldiers eagerly awaited signal. 2 1:40.

28 1533 The Ligurians, confident & disorderly, surprised by sudden Roman sortie from all gates. battle was brief, with 15,000 Ligurians killed & 2,500 taken prisoner. Ingauni tribe surrendered, & pilots & sailors from pirate ships captured. Rome granted thanksgivings & ordered discharge of troops & legions. 1.5 1:15.

29 1534 In 181 BC, drought hit Rome, & laborers discovered 2 stone chests on L. Petilius' land. One chest was empty, but other contained 14 books attributed to Numa Pompilius, including 7 on pontifical law & 7 on philosophy. books deemed threatening to national religion & burned in comitium. 2.1 1:45.

30 1535 In Hither Spain, Celtiberi assembled 35,000 men, while Q. Fulvius Flaccus, Roman praetor, had significantly smaller force. 2 armies camped near each other, with Celtiberi forming up for battle 4 days in row, but Romans refused to engage, opting for wait-and-see approach. 1.4 1:10.

31 1536 Roman praetor uses tactic to defeat Celtiberi. Troops circle enemy camp, attacking from behind. Smaller force distracts enemy, drawing them away. Enemy pursues, leaving camp vulnerable. Roman commander launches three-pronged attack, taking camp with little resistance. Classic pincer movement, catching enemy off guard. 1.4 1:10.

32 1537 Celtiberi saw flames, knew camp was lost. Romans' courage increased, enemy's dismay grew. Celtiberi fought back, but cut down. 23,000 killed, 4700 captured, 500 horses & 88 standards taken. Roman casualties: 200 soldiers, 830 allies, 2,400 auxiliaries. Praetor led army back to camp, rewarded brave soldiers. 1.2 1:00.

33 1538 Wounded carried to Aebura, legions marched to Contrebia. City surrendered, Celtiberi arrived too late. Romans made sortie, routed them. 12,000 killed, 5000 prisoners, 400 horses, 62 standards taken. Fugitives dispersed, informed others, who surrendered. Flaccus ravaged Celtiberia, stormed forts, many surrendered. Successful actions in Further Spain too. 1.3 1:05.

34 1539 Aquileia received 3,000 Latin colonists. Each soldier got 50 jugera, centurions 100, cavalry men 140. 2 temples dedicated: Venus Erycina, Pietas. L. Aemilius Paulus celebrated triumph over Ingauni: 25 golden crowns, Ligurian prisoners, 300 ases per soldier. M. Pinarius killed 2,000 Corsicans, obtained hostages & wax. 1.7 1:25.

35 1540 A. Postumius introduced staff officer L. Minucius & tribunes T. Maenius & L. Terentius to senate. They reported 2 victories in Hither Spain & requested honor for gods & permission for Q. Fulvius to bring back his army. Tiberius Sempronius succeeded Fulvius & argued to keep veteran army, citing potential unrest & barbarian aggression. 2.2 1:50.

36 1541 Minucius replied that he couldn't divine Celtiberi intentions. Consuls decreed new army for Liguria: 2 legions, 15,000 infantry, 800 cavalry. Tiberius Sempronius received fresh legion: 5,200 infantry, 400 cavalry, plus 7,000 Latin infantry & 300 cavalry. Q. Flaccus could bring away soldiers transferred before his consulship, up to 14,000 infantry & 600 cavalry. 2.1 1:45.

37 1542 Suspicions of poisoning surrounded deaths of Tiberius Minucius & C. Calpurnius. Investigations launched, led by C. Claudius in Rome & C. Maenius in market-towns. consul's wife, Quarta Hostilia, was accused of his murder. When her son Flaccus became consul, witnesses came forward, securing her condemnation. 1.6 1:20.

38 1543 The Ligurians, 12,000, surrendered after crushing defeat. Cornelius & Baebius decided to relocate them to Samnium, away from their homes. 40,000 freemen with families transported at government expense, receiving 150,000 silver denarii for necessities. consuls granted triumph, first without war. 1.3 1:05.

39 1544 Fulvius Flaccus led his army out, devastating Celtiberia. Natives collected force, besetting Manlian Pass. Flaccus withdrew, compelled by his successor's imminent arrival. Barbarians attacked, Flaccus ordered his men to stand firm, reminding them enemy had submitted twice before. battle began, 2 lines closed. 1.5 1:15.

40 1545 The battle was fierce, with changing fortunes. legionaries & allied troops fought well, but native auxiliaries struggled. Celtiberi's wedge-formation threw legions into disorder, but Fulvius led cavalry charge, breaking wedge & routing enemy. 17,000 Celtiberi killed, 4,000 taken alive, & 277 standards captured. 1.9 1:35.

41 1546 Consuls Postumius & Fulvius advanced on Ligurians. Postumius blockaded mountains, cutting off supplies, & received surrender. Fulvius moved on Apuani, relocating 7,000 to Samnium. Ligurians submitted after vineyards & crops destroyed. M. Fulvius Nobilior disbanded legion, but A. Postumius rebuked & recalled soldiers. Senate relegated M. Fulvius to Spain. 1.5 1:15.

42 1547 L. Duronius reported on piracy in Illyria, blaming King Gentius. Gentius' envoys denied charges, citing his illness. Senate investigated. Priests died, including L. Valerius Flaccus & P. Manlius. New appointments included Q. Fabius Labeo, Quinctus Fulvius, P. Claelius Siculus, Q. Fulvius Flaccus, M. Aemilius Lepidus, & P. Scipio. 1 :50.

43 1548 Cuma requested Latin language rights. Pisae offered land for Latin colony, supervised by Q. Fabius Buteo & Popillii Laenates. C. Maenius investigated poisoning cases in Sardinia, sentencing 3,000. Q. Fulvius Flaccus returned to Rome, elected consul, & celebrated triumph with 124 golden crowns, 31 pounds of gold, & 173,200 pieces of Oscan coinage. 1 :50.

44 1549 A law was passed fixing age at 42 for magistracy candidates. Four praetors elected: Cnaeus Cornelius Scipio, C. Valerius Laevinus, Quinctius Scaevola, & Publius Scaevola. Consuls assigned 3,000 Roman infantry, 300 cavalry, 5,000 Latin infantry, & 400 cavalry. Q. Fulvius vowed Games to Jupiter & temple to Fortuna Equestris, collecting money from Spaniards. decree limited Games expenditure to 200,000 asses, amount spent by Fulvius Nobilior. 1.6 1:20.

45 1550 A severe winter damaged trees & prolonged cold season. storm disrupted Latin Festival, damaging statues & buildings, including Capitol & Jupiter's temple in Terracina. three-footed mule was born in Reate. Sacred Books consulted, & Games held for 10 days. New censors elected: M. Aemilius Lepidus & M. Fulvius Nobilior. 1.1 :55.

46 1551 Citizens addressed new censors, M. Aemilius Lepidus & M. Fulvius Nobilior, urging them to put aside their long-standing feud for good of commonwealth. censors, with some complaint, agreed to end their quarrel, grasped hands, & escorted to Capitol amidst applause. senate praised their yielding temper. 2.4 2:00.

47 1552 Propraetors in Spain, Albinus & Gracchus, agreed on plan. Gracchus attacked Munda, taking it at first assault, & marched on, storming forts & burning crops. He besieged Certima, whose envoys asked for help, shown Roman military strength, & returned to dissuade their nation from sending aid. town surrendered, paying 2,400,000 sesterces & providing 40 noble youths to serve in Roman army. 1.7 1:25.

48 1553 Gracchus advanced on Alce, skirmishing with enemy. He feigned retreat, luring enemy into disordered pursuit. Then, with battle-shout, Romans burst from all gates, routing enemy. 9,000 enemy killed, 320 taken prisoner, with 11 horses & 37 standards captured. Only 109 Romans fell. 1 :50.

49 1554 Gracchus ravaged Celtiberia, accepting surrender of 103 towns & gaining enormous booty. He besieged Alce, breaching walls & forcing retreat to citadel. Envoys surrendered, yielding nobles, including Thurrus' sons & daughter. Thurrus himself joined Romans, fighting against his former allies with gallant & faithful service. 1.1 :55.

50 1555 Ergavica surrendered to Gracchus, but some sources suggest insincere surrenders & renewed hostilities. battle at Mt. Chaunus lasted from dawn till mid-day with heavy casualties. decisive defeat followed, with 22,000 enemy killed, 300 taken prisoner, & 72 standards captured. L. Postumius reportedly killed 35,000 Vaccaei in Further Spain. .9 :35.

51 1556 M. Aemilius Lepidus, Pontifex Maximus & Censor, led House. He constructed breakwater at Terracina, an auditorium, & polished temple of Jupiter. M. Fulvius built wharf, piles for bridge, court-house, markets, & colonnades. They built an aqueduct, established tolls, & revised voting methods, classifying tribes by status & income. 1.4 1:10.

52 1557 M. Aemilius requested 20,000 ases for Games dedicating Queen Juno & Diana temples, vowed 8 years prior. He dedicated temples in Circus Flaminius, exhibiting Games for 3 & 2 days. temple to Lares Permarini was dedicated, vowed by L. Aemilius Regillus 11 years prior, with tablet describing naval victory over Antiochus, capturing 42 ships. 1 :50.

53 1558 Q. Fulvius fought pitched battle in Liguria, defeating enemy, seizing their camp, & accepting surrender of 3,200 men & district. 3-day thanksgiving was decreed in

Rome. Meanwhile, 3,000 transalpine Gauls entered Italy, requesting land to live under Roman sovereignty, but ordered to leave by senate. .7 :25.

54 1559 Philip, king of Macedonians, dies of old age & grief over his son Demetrius' death. Antigonus, loyal friend & nephew of Philip's guardian, suspects foul play & tries to console Philip while uncovering truth. He suspects Apelles & Philocles, who brought forged letter from Rome leading to Demetrius' demise. Perseus, Philip's other son, is seen as likely successor, but Antigonus remains loyal to Philip. 1.4 1:10.

55 1560 Xychus, palace secretary, was arrested by Antigonus & brought to king. He confessed to forging letter that led to Demetrius' death, implicating Apelles & Philocles. Philocles was seized, but Apelles fled to Italy. Philip's grief was renewed, feeling more pain from Perseus' survival than Demetrius' death. 1.2 1:00.

56 1561 Philip, hopeless of punishing Perseus, decides to prevent him from enjoying rewards of his wickedness. He summons Antigonus, to whom he owes debt of gratitude, & resolves to leave kingdom to him. Philip recommends Antigonus to leading men of Macedonia, but dies soon after, cursing Perseus. 1.8 1:30.

57 1562 Perseus seized throne after Philip's death, which occurred just as Bastarnae tribe was about to cross Hister River to join Philip's war efforts. Philip's plans had included using Bastarnae to exterminate Dardani & invade Italy, or to plunder Bastarnae if they defeated by Romans. 1.6 1:20.

58 1563 The Bastarnae initially marched peacefully, but upon learning of Philip's death, Thracians denied them supplies, leading to violence & war. storm struck Bastarnae as they pursued Thracians, causing chaos & scattering them. Some reached Dardania, while others retreated to Apollonia. Perseus executed Antigonus & sought Rome's recognition. 1.5 1:15.

59 1564 Q. Fulvius celebrated his triumph over Ligurians, distributing 300 ases to legionaries, twice as much to centurions, & 3 times as much to cavalry. He celebrated on same day as his previous year's triumph. New consuls elected: M. Junius Brutus & A. Manlius Vulso. 3 praetors elected: M. Titinius Curvus, Ti. Claudius Nero, & T. Fonteius Capitolinus. Roman Games repeated due to portents: earthquake, deities turning away, fallen coverlet, & mice nibbling olives. 1.1 1:05.

41 178 - 71 (575 - 82) 7
Perseus & States of Greece
28 48.1 40:05 6.87

1 1565 Consul's council decided to attack Histria promptly. From Aquileia, he advanced to Timavus Lake with legions. C. Furius sailed with 10 ships to defend coast. 20 ships patrolled Upper Sea. Consul's camp was secured with pickets & cohorts. Nearby, 3,000 armed Gauls camped, led by Catemelus. 1.3 1:05.

2 1566 The Histri attacked Roman camp, taking advantage of fog & chaos. Romans fled to sea, abandoning their arms & posts. Only M. Licinius Strabo & 3 maniples remained, fighting stubbornly until overwhelmed. Histri plundered camp, feasting on food & wine, unaware of Roman army's retreat. 2.1 1:45.

3 1567 Panic struck Roman camp. Soldiers rushed to boats, fighting sailors who tried to stop them. Only 1,200 remained armed, with few cavalry horses. 3rd legion & Gauls recalled, determined to retake camp. Military tribunes encouraged their men, saying it would be glorious feat to recover camp from plundering barbarians. 1.9 1:35.

4 1568 Baeculonius, courageous standard-bearer, flung standard over rampart & led charge. Aelii brothers & consul followed with cavalry & infantry. Romans recovered their property, killing 8,000 Histri, with no prisoners taken. 237 Romans died, more in initial rout than in recapture. 1.1 :55.

5 1569 Cn. & L. Gavilius Novellus narrowly escaped capture by Histrians & fled to Aquileia, spreading alarm to

Rome. 2 legions of Roman citizens & 10,000 Latin allies with 500 cavalry levied. Consul M. Junius went to Gaul to raise troops, while Tiberius Claudius defended Pisae with 5,000 troops & 250 cavalry. 1.6 1:20.

6 1570 The senate resolved that consuls should arrange who would come to Rome for election. Tribunes attacked Manlius, seeking to strip him of command & bring him to trial. motion was blocked by Q. Aelius. Meanwhile, disturbances reported in Sardinia & Lycia, with Lycians complaining of Rhodian tyranny. 1.8 1:30.

7 1571 Sempronius Gracchus & L. Postumius celebrated their triumphs in Spain, with 40,000 & 20,000 pounds of silver, respectively. Legionaries received 25 denarii, centurions twice, & cavalry 3 times as much. M. Junius faced questions from tribunes Papirius & Licinius about Histria, explaining he was only there 11 days & knew little. 1.2 1:00.

8 1572 New consuls & praetors elected. Sardinia & Histria discussed, with delegates from Sardinia & Latin allies speaking to senate. allies reported 4,000 families had left Samnium & Paelignium for Fregellae, causing fraud & population decline. senate granted their requests to stop this & pass law to prevent citizenship changes. 1.9 1:35.

9 1573 The senate assigned Sardinia & Histria to consuls, ordering 2 legions for each province: 5,200 infantry & 300 cavalry, with 12,000 infantry & 600 cavalry from Latin allies. Force was sent to Spain with 5,000 infantry & 250 cavalry. Portents reported, & consuls sacrificed & drew for provinces: Histria to Claudius, Sardinia to Sempronius. Law was passed ordering Latin allies to return to their cities by November, with 5,200 infantry & 300 cavalry. 1.7 1:25.

10 1574 M. Junius & A. Manlius led their army into Histria, defeating Histrians & killing 4,000. Delegates sued for peace, & hostages sent. C. Claudius, fearing loss of his province, rushed to Histria, taunting Manlius & Junius, & ordering them to leave. They refused, & Claudius returned to Aquileia, then went to Rome, convened Assembly, & departed for his province with full ceremony. 2.1 1:45.

11 1575 Before Claudius' arrival, Junius & Manlius attacked Nesactium, where Histrian king Aepulo & chiefs had fled. Claudius diverted river, cutting off town's water supply. Histrians massacred their women & children, then Romans breached walls. 5632 sold as slaves, & war's instigators executed. 1.2 1:00.

12 1576 The Ligurians began war councils, & Tiberius Claudius reported it to senate. C. Claudius was authorized to transfer his army to Liguria. He defeated Ligurians, killing 15,000 & capturing over 700, along with 51 military standards. He then plundered & devastated their fields, submitting 2 provinces. 1.3 1:05.

13 1577 Portents reported: an osprey damaged sacred stone, heifer spoke in Campania, & bull mounted brazen cow in Syracuse. Intercessions & sacrifices offered. Pontiff M. Claudius Marcellus died & was replaced by his son. 2,000 Roman citizens settled at Luna, receiving 51.5 jugera each. .6 :30.

14 1578 C. Claudius reported his victories to senate & was granted double triumph over Histria & Liguria. 307,000 denarii & 85,702 "victoriati" displayed. Legionaries received 15 denarii, centurions double, & cavalry triple. Allied troops received half, & showed their anger by following in silence. New consuls raised 2 legions, 600 cavalry, & 10,000 infantry from Latin allies. .9 :45.

15 1579 Cnaeus Cornelius reported liver of his sacrificed ox had disappeared. Senate ordered both consuls to continue sacrificing until omens favorable. Provinces assigned: Pisae to Cornelius, Liguria to Petilius, City jurisdiction to Papirius Maso, alien to Aburius, Further Spain to Scipio Maluginensis, & Sardinia to Aquilius Gallus. 2 praetors, Popilius & Licinius, excused from their provinces. Reinforcements sent to Spain: 3,000 Roman citizens, 200 cavalry, 5,000 infantry, & 300 allied cavalry. 1.8 1:30.

16 1580 The Latin Festival was repeated due to magistrate's error. Consul Cn. Cornelius fell from his horse, became ill, & died at Cumae. His body received magnificent funeral in

Rome. Q. Petilius held an election & proclaimed Latin Festival for August 11. Portents reported: burning brand at Tusculum, lightning strikes at Gabii & Graviscae. C. Claudius recaptured Mutina, killing 8,000 Ligurians, & boasted of expanding Roman land for colonists. 1.6 1:20.

17 1581 Ti. Sempronius subjugated Sardinia, killing 15,000 natives. Hostages taken, & deputation reported to senate, requesting honors for gods & Sempronius' continued leadership. Senate decreed 2-day thanksgiving & 40 sacrifices. Sempronius remained proconsul, while C. Valerius Laevinus was elected consul & sent to Liguria, where C. Claudius had raised an emergency force. 1.3 1:05.

18 1582 The enemy occupied 2 mountain heights, Letum & Ballista. C. Claudius joined Q. Petilius in Gaul, leaving Liguria. Consuls drew lots to decide their directions. Petilius predicted he'd take Letum, unaware of word's double meaning. He was struck & fell, but his men concealed his body & took heights, killing 5,000 Ligurians. 52 Romans died. 2.4 2:00.

19 1583 The senate decreed three-day thanksgiving for victories in Gaul & Liguria. Meanwhile, Perseus was suspected of involving Dardani & Bastarnae in war. Envoys from Perseus denied accusations, but senate warned him to uphold treaty with

Rome. Dardani attacked Bastarnae, but defeated & besieged. 1.8 1:30.

20 1584 Perseus' behavior was inconsistent & confusing, often giving childish gifts or acting liberally without reason. However, he showed kingly spirit in his munificence to cities & care for divine worship, promising to build walls, temples, & theaters, & adorning Delos with altars & statues. He also hosted public exhibitions, including gladiatorial contests. 2 1:40.

21 1585 The consuls raised 2 legions, 10,000 infantry, & 600 cavalry. Pestilence swept through Rome, killing thousands, including several sacerdotal college members. New appointments made to replace them. Senate consulted Sacred Books, & people made vow to keep 2 holy days if pestilence ended. Various omens reported, including 2-headed boy, child with one hand, girl born with teeth, & talking ox. 2.1 1:45.

22 1586 Roman commissioners returned from Carthage, confirming Perseus' envoys visited Carthage. Rome sent envoys to Macedonia. Perseus defeated Dolopes & consulted Delphi's oracle, causing alarm in Greece & Asia. He sought to conciliate Greek states, especially Achaea, & proposed friendship. 1.4 1:10.

23 1587 Callicrates warned Achaeans against Perseus' offer to return runaway slaves, seeing it as ploy to break their treaty with

Rome. He believed Perseus sought to ally with them against Rome, citing his preparations for war & aggressive actions. Callicrates advocated maintaining their current policy until situation clarified. 3.3 2:45.

24 1588 Archo spoke against Callicrates' warnings, arguing that Perseus' friendly gestures & recognition by Rome indicated peace, not war. He advocated for open borders & reciprocal rights, citing past services of Macedonian kings & lack of threat from Perseus. council adjourned without decree, & later, envoys from Perseus denied admission. 3.6 3:00.

25 1589 Aetolians, exhausted from fighting, sought peace with Rome's help. However, Eupolemus betrayed & killed 80 refugees, reigniting war. Roman delegates attempted arbitration, but Proxenus was poisoned by his wife Orthobula. Conflict persisted among Aetolians, Cretans, & Lycians, but focus remains on Roman affairs. 1.4 1:10.

26 1590 In Spain, Celtiberi attacked Roman camp, but Appius Claudius led sortie & defeated them in less than 2 hours. 15,000 killed or captured, & 32 standards taken. Camp was stormed, & war ended. Survivors submitted to Roman authority, & region remained quiet. 1 :50.

27 1591 Q. Fulvius Flaccus & A. Postumius Albinus elected censors & revised senate roll, removing 9 names. They initiated public works projects, including road paving, bridge construction, & building temples, colonnades, & shops. They also regulated morals, stripping some equites of their horses. 2.1 1:45.

28 1592 Appius Claudius returned from Spain & entered Rome in ovation, bringing 10,000 pounds of silver & 5,000 pounds of gold into treasury. Elections held, & new praetors appointed. Tablet was dedicated to Mater Matuta, commemorating Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus' conquest of Sardinia, where 80,000 natives killed or captured. 1.5 1:15.

42 173 - 71 (580 - 82) 2
3rd Macedonian War
67 109.7 1:31:25 54.85

1 1593 The consuls, L. Postumius & M. Popilius, received Liguria as their province & tasked with raising legions & allies for war. Praetors assigned their provinces, including Spain, Sicily, & Sardinia. Postumius was sent to Campania to settle boundary disputes & began demanding resources from Praeneste, setting burdensome precedent. 1.8 1:30.

2 1594 Commissioners returned from Aetolia & Macedonia, reporting war preparations & Perseus' evasion. Aetolia's internal conflicts escalated, & Rome prepared for war. Portents expiated, & prayers offered to appease gods, following Books of Fate's instructions. Strange occurrences included heavenly fleet, dark wool, stone showers, locusts, & fish in field. 1.1 1:05.

3 1595 Q. Fulvius Flaccus, censor, stripped temple of Juno Lacinia of its marble roof tiles to adorn his own temple of Fortuna Equestris. senate condemned his actions, & unanimously decided to return tiles & offer expiatory sacrifices to Juno. tiles remained in precinct, as no one knew how to replace them. 1.9 1:35.

4 1596 Praetor N. Fabius died en route to Hither Spain, & P. Furius retained command after ballot with Cn. Servilius. senate distributed unappropriated land from Ligurian & Gallic wars, allotting 10 jugera to Roman citizens & 3 to Latin allies. Delegations from Aetolia & Thessaly reported on their conflicts & Macedonian affairs. .8 :40.

5 1597 Perseus plotted war, gaining Greek support through promises. Despite Eumenes' generosity, cities preferred Perseus, ignoring his notorious murders. Aetolia, Thessaly, & Perrhaebia faced debt-fueled unrest. Ap. Claudius intervened, reducing debts & setting repayment terms. Marcellus mediated in Aetolia, securing fragile peace & hostage exchange. 2 1:40.

6 1598 Marcellus commended Achaean council for resisting Macedonian approaches. Eumenes went to Rome, presenting evidence of Perseus' preparations. 5 commissioners sent to Macedonia & Alexandria. Envoys from Antiochus arrived, apologizing for delayed tribute & offering golden vases weighing 500 pounds. Leader received present of 100,000 ases. 1.6 1:20.

7 1599 In Corsica, C. Cicereius defeated enemy, killing 7,000 & capturing 1,700. He vowed temple to Juno Moneta & granted peace in exchange for 200,000 pounds of wax. In Liguria, M. Popilius fought fierce battle, killing 10,000 Ligurians, capturing 700, & securing 82 standards. Roman losses exceeded 3000. 1.2 1:00.

8 1600 The Ligurians, reduced to 10,000 men, surrendered unconditionally. However, consul disarmed them, sacked their town, & sold them & their property. senate deemed this cruel & ordered M. Popilius to restore Ligurians' liberty, return purchase-money, & recover their property. Only 10,000 Ligurians survived. 1.4 1:10.

9 1601 Consul M. Popilius refused to obey senate's order to restore Ligurians' liberty. He returned to Rome, angry & furious, & delivered bitter speech against praetor, demanding fine & rescinding of resolution. senators attacked him, & he left without achieving his demands. 1.1 :55.

10 1602 The censors, Q. Fulvius Flaccus & A. Postumius Albinus, closed lustrum, registering 269,015 Roman citizens. censors worked in harmony, expelling some from senate & equestrian order. Fulvius dedicated temple & exhibited games. locust plague hit Apulia, & Cn. Sicinius was sent to combat it. 2.1 1:45.

11 1603 Eumenes visited Rome to thank senate for their kindness & warn them of Perseus' preparations for war. He reviewed Philip's policy, including Demetrius' death, & described Perseus' plans to invade Italy with help of Bastarnae. Eumenes emphasized Perseus' strength, experience, & personal authority. 1.6 1:20.

12 1604 Eumenes described Perseus' influence in Greece & Asia, his marriages to Seleucus' daughter & Prusias' sister, & his leagues with Boeotians, recorded in 3 inscriptions. He noted Perseus' preparations for war: corn for 30,000 infantry & 5,000 cavalry for 10 years, money for 10,000 mercenaries, & arms for 3 armies. 1.8 1:30.

13 1605 Eumenes appealed to senators, stating that he had personally investigated Perseus' actions & was not spreading rumors. He listed Perseus' aggressive moves, including expelling Abrupolis, killing Arthetaurus, & helping Byzantines. Eumenes warned that Perseus would invade Italy, & urged senators to act, relieving himself of his loyalty burden. 2.1 1:45.

14 1606 Eumenes' speech impressed senate, but its details remained secret. When Perseus' envoys spoke, their words fell on deaf ears. senate favored Eumenes, granting him honors & gifts, including curule chair & ivory sceptre. Other cities, like Rhodes, sent deputations, but their efforts to discredit Eumenes failed. 1.6 1:20.

15 1607 Harpalus informed Perseus that Romans embittered against him. Perseus, confident in his power, decided to start war by assassinating Eumenes. He hired mercenaries & woman in Delphi to ambush Eumenes on his way to sacrifice at Apollo's temple. assassins hid behind wall & rolled down stones, hitting Eumenes on head & shoulder. 1.5 1:15.

16 1608 The assassins fled, leaving Eumenes wounded. His friends found him alive but unconscious. Some guards pursued assassins but returned empty-handed. Eumenes regained consciousness next day & was taken to Aegina, where his recovery was kept secret. Rumors of his death spread, even reaching Rome, causing Attalus to assume throne. 1.3 1:05.

17 1609 C. Valerius returned from Greece, confirming Eumenes' charges against Perseus. He brought Praxo, involved in assassination attempt, & L. Rammius, who revealed Perseus' plot to poison Roman generals & ambassadors. Rammius, Brundisium noble, had been bribed by Perseus but instead reported plan to Valerius & senate. 1.5 1:15.

18 1610 The senate declared Perseus public enemy, recognizing his criminal tactics. Cn. Sicinius raised force to sail to Apollonia & Epirus, securing coastal cities for consul's arrival. Eumenes, recovering from wounds at Aegina, went to Pergamum to prepare for war. Roman delegates congratulated him on his escape. War was postponed, & praetors left for their provinces, except M. Junius & S. Lucretius, who received reinforcements for Spain: 3,000 infantry & 150 cavalry for Roman legions, & 5,000 infantry & 300 cavalry for allied contingent. 1.1 :55.

19 1611 The consul Postumius recovered Campanian land for State. senate waited to see who would support Perseus. mission from Ariarathes arrived with his son, seeking Roman upbringing & guardianship. senate decreed furnished house & accepted prince. Envoys from Thrace, Maedi, & Astii sought alliance, receiving 2,000 ases each. 1.3 1:05.

20 1612 A column on Capitol was struck by lightning, shattering it. senate consulted Keepers of Sacred Books, who decreed lustration, prayers, & sacrifices in Rome & Campania. Augurs interpreted portent as favorable, predicting expanded borders & enemy destruction. Other strange occurrences increased religious fears, leading to expiatory sacrifices & day of solemn holiday. 1 :50.

21 1613 Popilius' despatch reported killing 6,000 Statellati, intensifying senatorial outrage. senate censured Popilius & consuls for not leaving for their province. Tribunes warned consuls to go or face fines. proposal was passed to free surrendered Ligurians & punish those responsible for their enslavement. 1.5 1:15.

22 1614 The consuls took over army from Popilius, who feared returning to Rome for trial. Tribunes threatened to judge him in absentia if he didn't return by November 13. He finally returned, facing senate hostility & bitter invectives. resolution freed many Ligurians, assigning them land across Po. Popilius' trial was postponed until March 15, evading decree. 1.2 1:00.

23 1615 A Carthaginian deputation & Gulussa, Masinissa's son, disputed in senate. Carthage complained that Masinissa had seized 70 towns & forts, violating their treaty. They requested senate to either settle dispute, allow self-defense, or define gifts to Masinissa. emotional plea aroused pity & displeasure against king. 1.6 1:20.

24 1616 The senate asked Gulussa to respond to Carthaginians' charges. He claimed his father had sent him to deny allegations & assure senate of his loyalty. senate ordered Gulussa to tell his father to send envoys to address complaints & warned Carthage to appear & state their case. 1.4 1:10.

25 1617 The commissioners returned from Macedonia, reporting Perseus' preparations for war & his defiance of Roman demands. senate demanded satisfaction & restoration of treaty rights. Perseus refused, declaring treaty void & offering new one on equal terms. commissioners renounced his alliance, & he ordered them to leave within 3 days. 2.3 1:55.

26 1618 The consuls focused on calming Ligurian tensions, while Gentius, King of Illyria, was suspected of conspiring with Perseus. Illyrian envoys dismissed for not following protocol. Roman envoys sent to Gentius to address complaints & ensure his neutrality. Commissioners reported that Eumenes, Antiochus, & Ptolemy remained loyal to Rome, but Rhodes was wavering. 1.6 1:20.

27 1619 The senate ordered C. Licinius to prepare 50 quinqueremes & enlist crews. Cn. Sicinius was to requisition 8,000 infantry & 500 cavalry from allies. A. Atilius Serranus would convey them to Macedonia. 2nd legion (4,000 infantry, 200 cavalry) was ordered to Brundisium by February 13. 38 quinqueremes launched, & 12 sent from Sicily. 1.3 1:05.

28 1620 Consul C. Popilius returned to Rome, facing criticism for his delay & handling of Liguria. New consuls & praetors elected. senate ordered sacrifices & prayers for successful war. C. Popilius made vow for Games & offerings if Rome remained unharmed for 10 years, with 150 senators present. 1.9 1:35.

29 1621 As Roman consuls, P. Licinius & C. Cassius, began their term, impending war with Macedonia was on everyone's mind. Eumenes, Prusias, Ariarathes, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Masinissa, & Gentius all had their own interests & alliances, while Cotys had declared for Macedonia. stage was set for complex & far-reaching conflict. 1.7 1:25.

30 1622 Free nations & communities divided on war. Common people supported Macedonia, while rulers split between Rome & Macedonia. Some sought power, others justice or balance. 3rd party preferred Roman rule but desired balanced strength for lasting peace. consuls offered sacrifices, received favorable omens, & summoned Assembly to declare war on Macedonia. 1.9 1:35.

31 1623 The senate decided that consuls would either agree on provinces or use ballot. Four new legions formed, with 5,200 infantry in each, except for Macedonia, which had 6,000. Allied contingent was raised to 16,000 infantry & 800 cavalry. Veterans up to 50 years old could be enrolled. 12,000 infantry & 600 cavalry assigned to Italy. 1.6 1:20.

32 1624 Consuls P. Licinius & C. Cassius disagreed on their province, with Cassius willing to choose Macedonia without ballot due to his oath as praetor. senate ordered ballot, & Licinius obtained Macedonia. They drew lots for legions, with 1st & 3rd going to Macedonia. Licinius mobilized carefully, calling up veteran soldiers & centurions. 1.4 1:10.

33 1625 The case of centurions was argued before tribunes & Assembly. M. Popilius spoke for centurions, citing their age & service. Consul P. Licinius read senate resolutions on war with Perseus & calling up veterans. He urged against hindering troop recruitment & rank assignments, suggesting referral to senate if needed. 1 :50.

34 1626 Spurius Ligustinus, veteran centurion, addressed Assembly, detailing his military service & honors. He had served 22 years, received 34 awards for courage, & was over 50 years old. He humbly accepted any rank assigned, promising to surpass others in courage, & urged his fellow appellants to follow his example. 2.6 2:10.

35 1627 Spurius Ligustinus' speech impressed consul & senate, earning him promotion to leading centurion in first legion. Other centurions dropped their appeal. Latin Festival was celebrated on June, & C. Lucretius sent fleet supplies to Brundisium. Four City legions raised, with 15,000 infantry & 1,200 cavalry from Latins & allies. P. Licinius received 2,000 Ligurian mercenaries, Cretan archers, Numidian cavalry, & elephants. Envoys sent to Masinissa, Carthaginians, & Crete to arrange supplies. 1 :50.

36 1628 Envoys from Perseus arrived, but not allowed to enter Rome. In temple of Bellona, they offered to give satisfaction for wrongs against Roman allies. Spurius Carvilius reported Perseus' advances in Thessaly. envoys told to return to Perseus with warning: P. Licinius would soon arrive with his army. They given 10 days to leave Italy. 1.4 1:10.

37 1629 Q. Marcius, A. Atilius, & 3 Lentuli sent to Greece with 2000 men, dividing into teams to visit various districts. Decimius went to Illyria to secure Gentius' alliance. Lentuli sailed to Peloponnese, while Marcius & Atilius visited Epirus, Aetolia, Thessaly, Boeotia, & Euboea, planning to meet Lentuli in Peloponnese. 1.4 1:10.

38 1630 Marcius & Atilius received favourable hearing in Epirus & Aetolia. In Thessaly, they met Acarnanian envoys & Boeotian refugees. 400 younger men sent to protect freed Macedonians. Thessalian council meeting expressed gratitude for Roman liberty & assistance. 1.7 1:25.

39 1631 Perseus met Marcius, accompanied by their suites. After brief delay, Marcius joked, "Let younger come to elder & son to father," & king crossed river with 3 attendants, leaving Hippias & Pantauchus as hostages. They greeted each other friendly & sat down. 1.4 1:10.

40 1632 Marcius told Perseus that his actions broke treaty: driving out Abrupolis, sheltering Arthetaurus' assassins, marching on Delphi, aiding Byzantines, & making secret treaty with Boeotians. He listed more grievances, including Theban envoys' murder & Eumenes' near-assassination. Marcius hoped Perseus would provide grounds to plead his case to senate. 2.1 1:45.

41 1633 Perseus defended himself, saying some charges proud accomplishments, others admitted or denied. He questioned evidence against him, citing Eumenes' oppression & deaths of Thebans at sea. He argued self-defense against Abrupolis & justified his actions against Dolopians as sovereign rights, citing their cruelty to his appointed governor. 2.6 2:10.

42 1634 Perseus defended himself, saying he visited Delphi to offer sacrifice, not occupy cities. He aided Aetolians & Byzantines, & established friendly relations with Boeotians, all known to Rome. He accused Eumenes of misrepresenting his actions & seeking to destroy Macedonia. He appealed to Roman clemency, asking for peace. 1.9 1:35.

43 1635 Marcius advised Perseus to send an embassy to Rome & agreed to an armistice, delaying war. Roman commissioners went to Boeotia, where cities unrestful due to Perseus' secret league. Delegates from Chaeronea & Thebes distanced themselves from league, while exiles from Thebes accused Ismenias of responsibility for league. 1.7 1:25.

44 1636 In Chalcis, city magistrates denounced league with Perseus, pleasing Romans. Ismenias proposed Boeotia place itself under Roman suzerainty, causing quarrel. Thebes debated, but magistrates convinced citizens to end alliance, sending advocates for Perseus to make peace with commissioners. Marcius & Atilius advised sending envoys to Rome, restoring exiles, & condemning alliance's authors. They requested 1,000 Achaean soldiers to garrison Chalcis. 1.4 1:10.

45 1637 A commission visited Asia & islands, urging allies to join war against Perseus. They focused on wealthier states, like Rhodes, which had prepared 40 ships under Hegesilochus' leadership. Roman commissioners impressed, seeing Rhodes' fleet as proof of their commitment. Decimius, however, returned empty-handed, suspected of taking bribes. 1.4 1:10.

46 1638 Perseus sent envoys to Rome & letters to Byzantium & Rhodes, claiming he had upper hand in negotiations with Marcius. His envoys asked Rhodes to mediate for peace, warning that Roman dominance would lead to enslavement. Rhodes replied that they wanted peace, but would not aid Perseus if war came. 1.9 1:35.

47 1639 Marcius & Atilius reported to senate, taking credit for deceiving Perseus. Some senators praised their cunning, but others, like elder senators, disapproved, saying it wasn't Roman way. They preferred honor over expediency, citing ancestors who declared war & fought fairly. majority approved Marcius' actions, sending him back to Greece with 50 quinqueremes & Atilius to occupy Larisa with 2,000 infantry. 2.1 1:45.

48 1640 The senate heard Perseus' envoys, but their arguments failed to convince. They ordered to leave Rome & Italy within 30 days. Consul P. Licinius prepared his army, while C. Lucretius sailed with 40 quinqueremes to Cephallania, gathering additional ships from allies along way, including 10 from Dyrrhachium & 54 from Gentius. 1.3 1:05.

49 1641 Consul P. Licinius departed Rome, wearing paludamentum, amidst dignified ceremony & public interest. Citizens wondered about war's outcome, considering uncertainty of battle & reputation of Perseus, Macedonian king. Licinius joined his army at Brundisium & sailed to Nymphaeum, camping near Apollonia. 1.4 1:10.

50 1642 Perseus held council of war, debating peace or war with Rome. Some advised concessions, others defiance. majority argued that surrendering territory or paying indemnity would lead to further demands & eventual exile. They urged Perseus to fight for his dignity & kingdom, citing examples of Hannibal & Antiochus. 1.8 1:30.

51 1643 Perseus held council at Pella, deciding on war. He assembled 43,000 soldiers at Citium, including 21,000 Macedonians & 22,000 auxiliaries. Army included 3,000 cavalry, 2,000 Gauls, 3,000 Thracians, 3,000 Cretans, & 500 Aetolians & Boeotians. This was largest Macedonian army since Alexander the Great's. 1.7 1:25.

52 1644 Perseus addressed his army of 43,000, noting their readiness & discipline. He contrasted their strength with Roman army's 7,000 infantry & 2,000 cavalry. He highlighted superiority of Macedonian arms & supplies, & urged his soldiers to show courage, recalling their ancestors' conquests & need to defend Macedonia against Roman enslavement. 2.6 2:10.

53 1645 Perseus' speech was met with applause & cheers. He then met with Macedonian city delegations, thanking them for their offers of aid & requesting only wagons for artillery & supplies. He marched his army to Eordaea, then to Haliacmon, crossing Cambunian Mountains to Tripolis, where he accepted surrender of Azorus, Pythoum, & Doliche. 1.2 1:00.

54 1646 Perseus besieged Mylae, which fell after four-day assault. city was sacked, & survivors sold as slaves. He then marched to Phalanna, bypassing Gyrto, which was held by T. Minucius Rufus & Hippias. Perseus captured Elatia & Gonnus, fortifying latter with troops, moats, & ramparts. He awaited enemy at Sycurium, strategic location with abundant water & healthy climate. 1.7 1:25.

55 1647 The Roman consul led his army through Epirus & Athamania, struggling to reach Gomphi. King's failure to attack was met with contempt. Consul rested his army, then marched to Larisa, camping at Tripolis. Eumenes joined him with 4,000 infantry & 1,000 cavalry, while other Greek states sent smaller contingents: Apollonia (300 cavalry, 100 infantry), Aetolia (1 cavalry division), Thessalians (300 cavalry), & Achaeans (1,500 Cretan-armed fighters). 1.4 1:10.

56 1648 C. Lucretius sent his brother to sail past Malean promontory to Chalcis, while he himself went to Gulf of Corinth. M. Lucretius arrived at Chalcis with 10,000 marines & 2,000 troops, & invested Haliartus. Praetor arrived from Creusa, & allied ships (2 Punic quinqueremes, 2 triremes, 4 from Chalcedon, Samos, & Rhodes) sent back. Q. Marcius arrived with his fleet, having captured Alope & Larisa Cremaste. Perseus ravaged Pherae's fields, distributing plunder & prisoners amongst his soldiers. 1.3 1:05.

57 1649 The consul & king held councils of war. Macedonians wanted to attack Roman camp, while Romans felt inactivity was damaging their prestige. messenger reported enemy's approach, & Romans sent cavalry & slingers to reconnoitre. Perseus halted his infantry & rode forward with cavalry & light infantry. 1.9 1:35.

58 1650 Perseus moved his camp within 5 miles of Romans. At dawn, he drew up his infantry & marched his cavalry & light infantry towards Roman camp. Romans caught off guard, with only 400 Gaulish troopers & 300 Cyrtians posted in front. King's forces numbered 2,000 cavalry & 400 slingers & javelin men. 1.8 1:30.

59 1651 The battle began with slingers & javelin men engaging. Thracians charged Italian cavalry, causing disorder. Perseus charged centre, dislodging Greeks. Thessalian cavalry retreated, forming junction with Eumenes' troops, & protected fleeing allies. king's troops didn't close quarters with formed lines. Perseus considered further action, but Euander advised caution, & he ordered retreat, thanking Euander for his advice. 1.9 1:35.

60 1652 The Romans lost 200 cavalry & 2,000 infantry, with 600 taken prisoner. King's army lost 20 cavalry & 40 infantry. Thracians celebrated, carrying enemy heads on spears. Eumenes advised consul to move camp across Peneus, which he did, yielding to reason. King regretted not pressing his advantage, realizing he could have inflicted greater damage during Romans' river crossing. 1.4 1:10.

61 1653 The king distributed spoils to his soldiers: 1,500 shields, over 1,000 cuirasses & coats of mail, & numerous helmets, swords, & missiles. He praised their victory, noting they had routed Roman cavalry & infantry, & vowed to attack Roman camp after crossing Peneus. soldiers eagerly listened, hoping for future glory. 1.5 1:15.

62 1654 Misagenes arrived with 1,000 cavalry, 1,000 infantry, & 22 elephants. Perseus' council advised him to seek peace, citing his father Philip's precedent. They proposed offering tribute to Romans. However, Roman consul refused, demanding Perseus submit to senate's discretion. Perseus attempted to bribe consul, but ultimately despaired of peace & returned to Sycurium. 2 1:40.

63 1655 The battle's outcome spread through Greece, with many, including Roman debtors & those who suffered under Perseus, delighting in his victory. In Boeotia, Lucretius besieged Haliartus, which resisted despite being outnumbered. Romans eventually breached wall & took city, selling 2,500 prisoners as slaves & razing city. 2.3 1:55.

64 1656 Perseus attempted to fire Roman camp, but his plan failed when advanced posts raised alarm. He retreated, expecting Romans to follow. Romans moved to Crannon, where they remained encamped, secure due to distance & water scarcity. Perseus' cavalry & light infantry appeared on nearby hills, but withdrew when Romans didn't engage. 1.6 1:20.

65 1657 Perseus attacked Romans, capturing 1,000 carts & 600 prisoners. He then targeted detachment of 800 Romans, led by L. Pomponius, who formed defensive circle on hill. Romans suffered from missiles, including cestrosphendons, but refused to surrender. Consul, alarmed, sent force to rescue them. 2.3 1:55.

66 1658 The Romans' spirits revived when they saw their comrades. Perseus' delay allowed consul to engage him, & Macedonians outmatched, losing 300 infantry & 24 select cavalry. Phalanx' hasty retreat caused turmoil, with carts thrown over cliffs & animals running wild. Romans suffered 4,300 casualties, but claimed victory. 1.7 1:25.

67 1659 Perseus withdrew to Macedonia, leaving garrison at Gonnus. Romans took Malloea & Tripolis, & Eumenes & Attalus returned home. consul distributed his army among Thessalian cities for winter quarters & sent Q. Mucius with 2,000 men to Ambracia. He razed Pteleum, accepted Antronae's surrender, & attacked Larisa's citadel with 200 men, which surrendered. 1.9 1:35.

43 171 - 168 (582 - 85) 3
3rd Macedonian War - Cont.
23 37.2 31 12.4

1 1660 The consul's commander in Illyria captured Cerenia, sparing its inhabitants, but failed to take Carnuns. He sacked Cerenia to reward his men. Meanwhile, C. Cassius, other consul, attempted to lead his legions through Illyria into Macedonia, alarming senate, which sent 3 commissioners to warn him against unauthorized hostilities. 1.8 1:30.

2 1661 A deputation from Spain complained to Roman senate about magistrates' oppression & theft. senate appointed recuperatores to investigate & allowed Spaniards to choose counsel. Cases adjourned, & defendants went into exile. senate eventually regulated corn valuation & tax collection to prevent future abuses. 1.7 1:25.

3 1662 A Spanish deputation of 4,000 requested town, claiming descent from Roman soldiers & Spanish women. senate decreed they be settled in Carteia, forming Latin colony, "Colony of Libertini." Meanwhile, Gulussa, son of Masinissa, warned Rome about Carthage's intentions to build fleet, potentially turning against Rome. 1 :50.

4 1663 A panic ensued when heads displayed in camp, leading to surrender & pardon. praetor's gentleness was welcomed, unlike ruthless conduct of Licinius & Lucretius in Greece. Abdera was stormed by Hortensius, who demanded 100,000 denarii & 50,000 modii of wheat, leading to enslavement & senate intervention. 2 1:40.

5 1664 Complaints made against C. Cassius, military tribune in Macedonia, for devastating friendly Alpine tribes' fields & enslaving thousands. senate replied that they didn't sanction his actions & would investigate upon his return. Commissioners sent with presents, including 2000 ases, to tribes & princes. 1.7 1:25.

6 1665 Deputations from Greece & Asia gathered in

Rome. Athenians offered 100,000 modii of corn. Alabanda offered golden crown (50 pounds) & 300 cavalry shields. Lampsacus offered crown (80 pounds) & requested alliance. Each delegate received 2,000 ases. Carthage & Masinissa promised wheat, cavalry, & elephants. 2.2 1:50.

7 1666 Cretan delegates assured senate they sent archers to Macedonia, but admitted more served with Perseus. senate replied that if they prioritized Rome's friendship, they would be treated as faithful allies. Chalcidian leader Micion, despite his poor health, denounced brutal treatment of his people by Roman praetors Lucretius & Hortensius. 1.8 1:30.

8 1667 The senate summoned Lucretius to face accusations from Micion & others. Tribunes Juventius & Aufidius severely criticized him, & he was tried before Assembly. Found guilty by all 35 tribes, he was fined 100,000 ases. Senate sent letter to Hortensius, ordering him to restore enslaved freemen. Delegates received 2,000 ases each. 1.5 1:15.

9 1668 In Liguria, no battles occurred, & consul demobilized 2 Roman legions after 2 months. In Illyria, Gentius' suspicious behavior prompted senate to send 8 ships with 2,000 soldiers to C. Furius, while Appius Claudius led 4,000 infantry to protect population, eventually gathering mixed force of 8,000 men. 1 :50.

10 1669 Appius Claudius, tempted by promises of plunder, approached Uscana with 4,000 men, leaving 1,000 to guard camp. His troops, disorganized & careless, ambushed by city's defenders, resulting in heavy losses. Only 2,000 men, including Claudius, escaped to their camp, which they soon abandoned, retreating to Lychnidus. 1.6 1:20.

,11 167 The senate sent M. Fulvius Flaccus & M. Caninius Rebilus to investigate situation in Macedonia. consular elections held, & Q. Marcius Philippus & Cnaeus Servilius Caepio elected. commission returned from Macedonia, reporting Perseus' successes & allies' alarm. new consuls instructed to address situation in Macedonia. 1.6 1:20.

12 The senate decreed reinforcements for Macedonia (6,000 Roman infantry, 6,000 Latin allies, 250 Roman cavalry, 300 allied cavalry) & Italy (two legions with 5,200 infantry & 300 cavalry each). Additional legions raised for service elsewhere (16,000 Latin infantry, 1,000 cavalry). Fleet was manned with 1,000 Roman citizens & 500 from Italy. 1.4 1:10.

13 In 170 BC, various portents reported in Italy, including fiery torch in sky, talking cow, shower of stones, & bleeding Apollo statue. Keepers consulted Sacred Books & ordered expiatory sacrifices, which performed by consuls & magistrates to propitiate gods. 1.5 1:15.

14 Censors Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus & C. Claudius Pulcher elected. To address enlistment issues, they announced new rules: citizens under 46 must enroll, & those already in Macedonia must return within 30 days. This caused massive influx of men to Rome, overcrowding city. 1.8 1:30.

15 C. Sulpicius enrolled 4 legions in 11 days. Consuls & praetors assigned provinces. Q. Marcius received Macedonia & chose 2 legions. Censors revised senate roll, choosing M. Aemilius Lepidus as leader, & removed 7 names. They also investigated absent soldiers & required them to return to duty. 1.3 1:05.

16 Censors C. Claudius & Tiberius Sempronius strictly revised equites register, degrading many. An edict banned tax-farmers from contracts, sparking protests. Tribune P. Rutilius proposed canceling contracts, leading to dispute. Claudius was fined, but acquitted in trial. Gracchus was not tried, & censors ceased their duties. 2.6 2:10.

17 The Aquileians requested more colonists, & senate approved 1,500 households. Commissioners C. Popilius & Cnaeus Octavius went to Greece, announcing senate's order to stop excessive contributions to Roman commanders. They met with Achaeans, Aetolians, & Acarnanians, addressing their concerns & demands, & Popilius was sent to Ambracia with 1,000 soldiers. 1.3 1:05.

18 Perseus marched on Uscana with 10,000 infantry, 2,000 light-armed troops, & 500 cavalry. After three-day siege, Roman garrison of 4,000 surrendered, & Perseus deported population to Stuberra, selling Illyrians & Uscanians as slaves. He posted garrison & distributed Roman troops among nearby cities. 2.3 1:55.

19 Perseus captured Daudracum & 11 other forts, taking 1,500 Roman prisoners. He then besieged Oaeneus, using raised way to breach walls. town fell, & males killed, while women & children taken captive. Perseus returned to Stuberra & sent envoys to Gentius to form an alliance. 2 :20.

20 Envoys from Perseus reached Gentius in Illyria, urging him to join war against

Rome. Gentius replied that he lacked funds to do so. Perseus sent them back with Glaucias, without offering money, & then devastated Ancyra, secured Uscana, & returned to Macedonia with his army. .8 :40.

21 L. Coelius failed to retake Uscana, & M. Trebellius Fregellanus obtained hostages from Penestae & Parthini. Appius Claudius's attack on an Epirote stronghold failed. Perseus marched to Stratus with 10,000 infantry & 300 cavalry, facing difficulties due to snow & rough roads. He met Archidamus, who was to betray Stratus. 1.6 1:20.

22 Perseus encamped near Stratus, but found gates shut & Roman detachment under C. Popilius had been admitted. He withdrew to Aperantia, where Archidamus was appointed governor with force of 800 men, & Perseus's presence was welcomed by nation. 1.6 1:20.

23 Perseus's return to Macedonia was arduous. Appius abandoned siege of Phanote, losing 1,000 men & 200 prisoners. Clenas & Philostratus ambushed Macedonians, killing 1,000 & capturing 100. Perseus recalled 1,000 infantry & 200 cavalry to garrison Cassandrea, & persisted in sending envoys to Gentius, despite same uncommitted response. 1.3 1:05.

44 168 (585)
Pydna & Fall of Macedonia
46 83.3 1:09:25 83.3

1 Consul Q. Marcius Philippus arrived in Brundisium with 5,000 reinforcements. M. Popilius & others joined as military tribunes. C. Marcius Figulus commanded fleet. A. Hostilius, with his efficient army, met consul in Thessaly. consul addressed his troops, highlighting Perseus's crimes & comparing Rome's strength to Macedonia's. 1.7 1:25.

2 Consul Q. Marcius Philippus consulted his staff & decided to march into Macedonia. C. Marius led naval attack. Consul ordered month's supply of corn & considered 3 routes: Pythian Pass, Cambunian Range, & Lake Ascuris. Perseus sent 10,000 light infantry to hold Volustana & 12,000 Macedonians to defend Lapathus. 1.4 1:10.

3 The consul decided to march through pass near Ottolobus, sending 4,000 men ahead under M. Claudius & Q. Marcius. They advanced 15 miles to Dierum, then 7 miles more, seizing strategic position near enemy's camp. Consul reunited forces, encamping on hill overlooking enemy's camp, Dium, Phila, & sea coast. 1.4 1:10.

4 Hippias & Romans clashed in narrow mountain pass, with light infantry on both sides. battle was intense but inconclusive, with more wounded than killed. Roman commander, over 60 & stout, showed audacity & led crossing of ridge, sending men to clear path & protecting pioneers with cavalry & baggage. 1.9 1:35.

5 The Romans descended mountain with great difficulty, using makeshift bridges (30 feet long) to transport elephants. They advanced only 7 miles, mostly rolling down slope. next day, they waited in valley for Popilius' detachment, then marched through Callipeuce pass, eventually reaching level ground. 2.2 1:50.

6 The king, in panic, abandoned his defenses & fled to Pydna, leaving passes to Macedonia open to Romans. Romans' only option was to advance through Dium, difficult task if king had not been reckless. king's withdrawal allowed Romans to enter Macedonia unopposed. 2.5 2:05.

7 The consul, confident in his enemy's foolishness, advanced to Dium, then to Pieria, receiving surrenders & promising autonomy. However, supply difficulties forced him back to Dium. Perseus criticized his generals, but his own cowardice was true culprit. consul learned of abundant supplies in Tempe & Phila's strongholds. 2 1:40.

8 The consul marched to Phila to strengthen garrison & distribute corn, but his move was criticized as retreat. Perseus returned to Dium, repaired damage, & camped on other bank of Elpeus River. consul sent Popilius with 2000 men to Heracleum, midway between Dium & Tempe. 1.3 1:05.

9 Popilius tried to persuade Heracleum's leaders to surrender, but they saw king's campfires & refused. Romans attacked by land & sea, using siege engines & testudo formations. 2 companies climbed into city, & consul encamped there, preparing to winter & supply his army from Thessaly. 2.1 1:45.

10 Perseus regretted ordering his treasure thrown into sea & naval arsenal burnt. Most of treasure was recovered, but king had divers & messengers killed to hide his mistake. C. Marcius' fleet devastated coast, but was repelled at Thessalonica. They later clashed with Macedonians at Antigonea, suffering 500 casualties & capturing 200 Macedonians. 1.6 1:20.

11 The Roman fleet sailed to Pallene, where they met Eumenes' 20 ships & Prusias' 5. They attempted to capture Cassandrea, built on an isthmus with 2 headlands. Romans filled fosse & broke through arches, breaching wall. Garrison had 800 Agrianes & 2,000 Illyrians, but city was vulnerable. 1.7 1:25.

12 The Romans breached Cassandrea's wall, but garrison sortied & routed them, killing 600. Eumenes' combined attack also failed. Romans began siege, but Perseus' fleet sent 10 ships with Gaulish mercenaries to reinforce city, forcing Romans to raise siege & sail to Torone, then Demetrias, & finally Iolcus. 1.4 1:10.

13 The consul sent M. Popilius with 5,000 men to attack Meliboea, but inhabitants resisted. Perseus sent Euphranor with 2,000 men to relieve Meliboea, & Romans abandoned their siege. Euphranor then marched to Demetrias, which Romans failed to capture. Eumenes sailed away, leaving consul to winter in Oreum with part of fleet. 2 1:40.

14 Gaulish envoys offered aid in Macedonian war & received gifts. Pamphylians brought golden crown & renewed their friendship with Rome, receiving 2,000 ases. Prusias' envoys pleaded for peace with Perseus, while Rhodians demanded it, citing their past services & threatening action if peace wasn't made. 2 1:40.

15 The Roman senate refused to reply to Rhodian envoys' demands, instead reading decree granting freedom to Caria & Lycia. envoys told that Rome knew of Rhodes' secret dealings with Perseus & would not be dictated to by Rhodes. Each envoy was offered 2,000 ases, which they refused. 1.2 1:00.

16 The senate received despatch from Q. Marcius, consul in Macedonia, requesting supplies. They ordered 6,000 togas, 30,000 tunics, & 200 horses to be sent. Onesimus, Macedonian who had advised peace, defected to Romans & was granted 200 jugera of land, house, & hospitality. 2 1:40.

17 The senate resolved to hold elections, & Consul Q. Marcius returned to Rome to preside over them. L. Aemilius Paulus & C. Licinius Crassus elected consuls, with Aemilius assigned to Macedonia & Licinius to Italy. Praetors also assigned to various provinces, including fleet, Spain, Sicily, & Sardinia. 1.3 1:05.

18 L. Aemilius, consul, showed enthusiasm for war, asking senate to send commission to Macedonia to gather information on armies, fleet, allies, supplies, & terrain. 3 commissioners selected: C. Domitius Ahenobarbus, A. Licinius Nerva, & L. Baebius. They departed in 2 days. Reports of stone showers & priestly deaths also occurred. 1.5 1:15.

19 Consul L. Aemilius Paulus reported to senate that he had no news from Macedonia, but would make report once commissioners returned. Meanwhile, envoys from Ptolemy & Cleopatra appealed for Roman help against Antiochus, who was threatening Alexandria. senate sent 3 ambassadors to end war, warning both sides to abstain from hostilities. 2 1:40.

20 The Roman delegates left for Alexandria with envoys. commissioners from Macedonia arrived, reporting that army's advance was hindered by mountains & king's forces. They estimated 30,000 Macedonian soldiers. fleet was undermanned, with unpaid crews & unreliable allies, except for Attalus, who remained loyal. 1.2 1:00.

21 The senate decreed that L. Aemilius choose military tribunes for 2 legions in Macedonia. C. Licinius was to enrol 7,000 Roman citizens, 200 cavalry, 7,000 Latin infantry, & 400 cavalry. He was also to send instructions to enrol 600 cavalry in Gaul. Goal was to have 6,000 infantry & 300 cavalry in each legion. 1.3 1:05.

22 L. Aemilius addressed Assembly, expressing gratitude for their support & promising to do his utmost to end war worthy of Rome's greatness. He asked people to believe his reports & not spread rumors, & invited experienced men to join him in Macedonia as advisors. 3 2:30.

23 Perseus agreed to pay 300 silver talents to ally with Gentius, king of Illyria. Hostages exchanged, & Perseus met Gentius at Dium with his cavalry. treaty was ratified, & envoys sent to Rhodes, accompanied by Metrodorus, who claimed Rhodians prepared for war against Rome. 1.5 1:15.

24 Perseus urged Eumenes & Antiochus to unite against Rome, warning that if Macedonia fell, Asia & Syria would be next. He sent emissaries to negotiate, including Cydas, friend of Eumenes, who met with Perseus' generals in secret. missions sparked suspicion & accusations of treachery against Eumenes in Rome. 1.5 1:15.

25 Eumenes didn't want to help Perseus win, due to personal aversion & jealousy. He offered to not assist Rome for 1,000 talents or mediate peace for 1,500. Perseus hesitated, calling payment "sordid" but offered to deposit money in temple. Eumenes proposed taking some immediately, but both monarchs gained only distrust. 1.6 1:20.

26 Perseus's avarice lost him opportunities, including peace through Eumenes & an alliance with Gentius & Gauls. Gauls, offering 1,000 cavalry & foot soldiers, demanded payment & hostages, which Perseus refused, calling them perfidious & savage. He deemed 5,000 cavalry sufficient & not dangerous. 2.2 1:50.

27 Perseus's avarice lost him another opportunity, as he refused to pay Gauls' stipulated sum, leading them to devastate Thrace & return to Hister. He also lost Gentius's alliance by not paying agreed 300 talents, instead sending only 10 talents. Hierophon returned from Eumenes, sparking suspicion. 2.1 1:45.

28 Perseus's naval commanders, Antenor & Calippus, protected corn ships & intercepted 35 vessels carrying Gaulish horses & troopers sent by Eumenes. Macedonians killed 800 Gauls, took 200 prisoners, & captured or hamstrung horses. They then sailed to Phanae, Delos, & eventually Thessalonica. 2.2 1:50.

29 Roman commissioners arrived at Delos, finding Macedonian & Eumenes' ships. Despite tensions, they coexisted peacefully due to temple's sanctity. Antenor pursued & plundered transports, while Popilius tried to protect his ships. Macedonian & Illyrian envoys influenced Rhodes, promising peace & strengthening Perseus' faction. 1.1 :55.

30 In spring, generals took their posts: Aemilius in Macedonia, Octavius with fleet, & Anicius in Illyria against Gentius. Gentius, king of Illyria, had 15,000 men & sent his brother to subjugate Cavii. Appius Claudius & Anicius joined forces, totaling 2,000 infantry & 200 cavalry, to march into Illyria. 2.1 1:45.

31 Anicius marched on Scodra, Gentius' stronghold, despite its strong defenses. Romans defeated Illyrians, killing over 200, & Gentius sought truce. He was allowed 3 days to consider his position, but was eventually captured & handed over to military tribune, receiving mere 10 talents. 2.2 1:50.

32 After capturing Scodra, Anicius sent Perpenna to arrest Gentius' family & friends. Gentius & his family (wife, 2 sons, brother) sent to Rome as prisoners. Meanwhile, Perseus deployed 2,000 cetrati to Thessalonica, 1,000 cavalry to Aenea, & 5,000 Macedonians to Pytho & Petra, & fortified Elpeus riverbank. 1.4 1:10.

33 Aemilius ordered water-carriers to dig on shore, less than 300 paces distant, uncovering hidden springs. This boosted his prestige. He then inspected crossing point, ensuring an orderly crossing without confusion. He implemented new communication protocols, forbade sentinels from wearing shields, & altered picket regulations to prevent fatigue. 2.3 1:55.

34 Aemilius addressed his troops, emphasizing their duties: physical strength, weapon maintenance, & food readiness. He stressed that strategy & decision-making his responsibilities, not theirs. soldiers responded enthusiastically, busy sharpening swords, polishing armor, & practicing combat skills, eager for decisive victory. 1.9 1:35.

35 Aemilius raised Roman spirits & alarmed Macedonians by capturing Illyrian hostages. He received Rhodian envoys seeking peace, but planned to attack Perrhaebia with 5,000 troops, guided by Coenus & Menophilus. He feigned coastal attack with Octavius & engaged enemy in river-bed battle to distract Perseus. 3.8 3:10.

36 Aemilius' troops exhausted & thirsty from march. Despite their eagerness for battle, he delayed action, knowing enemy was fresh & strong. Nasica urged him to attack, but Aemilius, drawing on his experience, decided to rest & regroup, promising to explain his reasons later. 2.1 1:45.

37 Aemilius withdrew his troops to camp without confusion, leaving cavalry & light infantry facing enemy. king also retreated, content to delay battle. lunar eclipse occurred, predicted by C. Sulpicius Gallus, impressing Romans & worrying Macedonians, who saw it as bad omen. 2.3 1:55.

38 Aemilius addressed his council, praising Nasica for openly expressing his thoughts. He justified delaying battle, citing enemy's numerical superiority & his own troops' fatigue from march & camp preparations. He preferred to lead fresh, rested soldiers into battle, rather than exhausted ones. 1.7 1:25.

39 Aemilius emphasized importance of fortified camp, citing its role as safe haven & shelter. He argued that fighting without secure base would be risky & futile. Instead, he aimed to attack enemy in open country, after dislodging them from their strong position, to bring war to swift close. 1.8 1:30.

40 Aemilius & Perseus hesitated to engage in battle, but Fortune intervened. loose mule sparked skirmish at river, where Roman soldiers killed Thracian & recaptured mule. Enraged Thracians pursued Romans, leading to larger conflict involving 800 Thracians & Roman cohorts. 1.4 1:10.

41 The Roman legion filled gap between "caetrati" & phalanx, disrupting enemy line. Macedonians faltered on right, where elephants & allied cohorts attacked. 2nd legion broke phalanx's center, & separate engagements shook formation, causing it to collapse like house. 1.7 1:25.

42 The Macedonian infantry was slaughtered, with 20,000 killed & 11,000 taken prisoner. Cavalry escaped with minimal losses. Roman casualties fewer than 100, mostly Paelignians, with more wounded. If battle had started earlier, entire Macedonian force would have been destroyed. 1.5 1:15.

43 Perseus fled to Pierian forest with his suite & cavalry, then took side-path with small group of loyal followers. He had trouble finding his way, & only 3 friends joined him in Pella. He fled with 500 Cretans, intending to reach Amphipolis, & crossed Axius River before daylight. .9 :35.

44 After battle, consul's anxiety about his son's safety temporarily dampened his joy in victory. His 17-year-old son, P. Scipio (later Africanus), was found safe & sound, & consul's joy was unbridled. Meanwhile, in Amphipolis, Diodorus cleverly dispatched 2000-strong Thracian garrison to Emathia, securing city. 1.2 1:00.

45 After battle, Perseus sent heralds to Paulus & fled to Amphipolis. His friends surrendered to Romans, & consul's victory was announced in Rome. Macedonian cities surrendered, including Pydna, & Perseus' hopes dwindled. He fled to Samothrace with 2000 talents, accompanied by Cretans who scrambled for treasure. 2.2 1:50.

46 Paulus placed Roman officers in charge of surrendered cities & sent detachments to ravage Sintice & capture Aegeum. He camped near Pella, surveying city & citadel, noting its strong defenses. Embassies congratulated him, & he later marched to Amphipolis, where population welcomed him, showing no loyalty to Perseus. 1.6 1:20.

45 168 - 64 (585 - 89) 4
Hegemony of Rome in East
44 88.7 1:13:55 22.18

1 Rumors of Roman victory in Macedonia spread quickly in Rome, sparking cheers & applause at Games. Official messengers later arrived, confirming news. consul read despatch to crowd in Circus, announcing defeat of Perseus & surrender of Macedonian cities, prompting wild celebrations. 1.7 1:25.

2 The senate met to discuss Roman victory in Macedonia. They decreed public thanksgivings, discharged soldiers & seamen, & ordered 5-day thanksgiving beginning September 26. consul reported king's flight & fleet's readiness to pursue. Temples filled with crowds offering thanks, & victims sacrificed. 1.9 1:35.

3 The senate heard reports of Roman victories in Illyria & Macedonia, & ordered thanksgivings. Rhodian envoys, who had offered to mediate peace, rebuked for their timing & motives. senate accused them of only trying to save Perseus, & dismissed them with stern reply. 1.3 1:05.

4 M. Marcellus captured Marcolica, bringing gold & silver to treasury. Meanwhile, Perseus, now fugitive, sent letter to Paulus Aemilius, still addressing himself as king. Paulus refused to reply, & Perseus sent 2nd letter, humbly requesting conference to discuss his fate. 1.3 1:05.

5 Cn. Octavius' fleet arrived at Samothrace, & L. Atilius persuaded Samothracians to demand Euander's surrender, accusing him of Eumenes' murder. Perseus, fearing Euander's trial, had him killed, then bribed Theondas to announce Euander's suicide, avoiding blame for profaning temple. 2.3 1:55.

6 Perseus' betrayal of Euander alienated his supporters, & he was forced to flee. He attempted to escape by sea with Oroandas, but was abandoned & left to hide in temple. Eventually, he surrendered to Octavius, who sent him to consul's camp as prisoner, along with his son Philip. 1.9 1:35.

7 Paulus celebrated Perseus' capture as 2nd victory & called his council together to hear news. king was brought to camp, surrounded by massive crowd, & entered headquarters tent in mourning garb with only his son as companion. Paulus treated him with dignity & respect. 1.3 1:05.

8 Perseus was questioned by Paulus about his reasons for going to war with Rome, but he remained silent, weeping. Paulus urged him to keep stout heart, citing Rome's clemency towards other kings & nations. He then addressed his council, warning against trusting in fleeting fortune & encouraging humility. 1.5 1:15.

9 The Roman army went into winter quarters, marking end of 4-year war with Perseus & Macedonian kingdom. kingdom, which began with Caranus, lasted 150 years & reached its peak under Alexander, extending from Greece to Asia & India, before eventually declining & disappearing. 1.1 :55.

10 After Roman victory, C. Popilius & C. Decimius arrived in Rhodes, where they met with fear & anxiety. Popilius rebuked Rhodians for their support of Perseus, while Decimius took more moderate tone, blaming only guilty parties. Rhodians passed decree sentencing those responsible to death. 2.5 2:05.

11 Antiochus, despite his claim of restoring Ptolemy to throne, demanded Cyprus, Pelusium, & surrounding lands in exchange for peace. Ptolemy, aware of Antiochus' true intentions, negotiated with his brother & friends, & they agreed to admit him into Alexandria, uniting against Antiochus' aggressive demands. 2 1:40.

12 Antiochus, met by Roman commissioners, was handed senate decree & forced to choose between compliance or war. He submitted, evacuated Egypt, & agreed to lasting peace with Ptolemy. commissioners' work was renowned, & Antiochus' fleet was sent home. Ptolemaic dynasty was restored, & Egypt was saved. 1.9 1:35.

13 The commissioners returned to Rome, & Popilius reported that Antiochus had obeyed senate's orders. Envoys from Antiochus & Ptolemy expressed gratitude for peace & victory. senate responded with assurances of protection & friendship. Deputations from Pisae & Luna, & Eumenes & Attalus, also visited Rome with congratulations & disputes. 2.7 2:15.

14 The senate praised Masinissa's loyalty & assistance in wars, & thanked his son for congratulations. They declined his request to come to Rome, citing no advantage & potential harm to Rome's interests. Instead, they offered gifts & hospitality, & provided for his return to Africa with his suite. 1.3 1:05.

15 Claudius & Sempronius, censors, debated suffrage of freedmen. Those with son over 5 years old or owning farms worth over 30,000 sesterces exempt. They compromised, deciding to enroll all freedmen in Esquiline tribe, chosen by lot. senate praised their wisdom & perseverance. 1.6 1:20.

16 The senate allocated provinces, with Spain divided into two, & Macedonia & Illyria remaining under L. Paulus & L. Anicius. Praetors received their assignments, including Q. Cassius (civic jurisdiction) & M. Juventius (alien jurisdiction). Portents reported, including bloody hearth (3 days, 2 nights) & lightning strikes (2 gates, wall, temple). 1.6 1:20.

17 The senate appointed commissioners to advise on settling Macedonia & Illyria. For Macedonia, 10 chosen, including 5 ex-consuls & 5 others. For Illyria, 5 chosen, including 1 ex-consul & 4 others. Consuls M. Junius & Q. Aelius balloted for their provinces, with Junius receiving Pisae & Aelius receiving Gaul. 1.1 :55.

18 senate resolved to grant freedom to Macedonians & Illyrians, demonstrating Rome's protection of liberty. They abolished mine contracts & royal domain leases, which perpetuated tax-farming & potential oppression. Macedonia was divided into four cantons with local councils, & tribute to Rome was halved. 1.2 1:00.

19 Attalus, brother of Eumenes, visited Rome with delegation, seeking congratulations & aid against Gauls. However, he also hoped to gain benefits at his brother's expense. wise physician, Stratus, advised him to prioritize brotherly harmony, warning that seeking to overthrow Eumenes would lead to ruin & shame. 3.2 2:40.

20 Attalus addressed senate, congratulating them on their victory & requesting aid against Gauls. He asked for Aenus & Maronea, but not kingdom, disappointing those who expected him to seek power. He received honors & gifts, & his departure was widely witnessed. 1.7 1:25.

21 Praetor M. Juventius Thalna proposed declaring war on Rhodes without consulting senate or consuls, contrary to precedent. Tribunes M. Antonius & M. Pomponius opposed him, vetoing measure prematurely. situation was marked by haste & deviation from traditional procedures. 1.1 :55.

22 A Rhodian envoy defends their city, citing past alliances & victories with

Rome. They question justification for war, noting their neutrality in conflict with Perseus. They appeal to Roman clemency, highlighting their history of cooperation & assistance, including naval battles against Hannibal & Antiochus. 2.4 2:00.

23 The Rhodian envoy defends their city's actions, citing past alliances & rewards from

Rome. They acknowledge sending embassies to both Rome & Perseus, urging peace, & distinguish between state's actions & individual citizens' conduct. They attribute any offense to arrogance rather than malice. 3.3 2:45.

24 The Rhodian envoy concludes their defense, asking senate to consider their past services & not punish them for their neutral stance in war with Perseus. They offer to surrender their wealth & themselves to Rome, refusing to act as enemies, even in face of destruction. 2.5 2:05.

25 The Rhodian envoys left senate-house, & senators like M. Porcius Cato spoke in their favor. Rhodians neither declared enemies nor allowed to remain as allies. They required to withdraw their governors from Lycia & Caria. crown of 20,000 gold pieces was sent to Theaetetus to press for an alliance. Rhodes maintained friendly relations with Rome without formal treaty. Caunians revolted, & Mylasensians seized Euromensian towns, but Rhodes despatched troops to reduce them to submission. 2.2 1:50.

26 L. Anicius campaigned in Illyria, receiving submissions & placing garrisons in cities. In Epirus, most towns surrendered, but Passaron, Tecmon, Phylace, & Horreum resisted. After their capture, Anicius declared Illyrians free nation, exempting some cities from tribute, & dividing Illyria into 3 regions. 2.4 2.

27 Paulus sent his son to sack Aeginium & Agassae, & Postumius to sack Aeniae. Paulus then toured Greece, visiting famous sites like Delphi, Lebadia, Chalcis, Aulis, Oropus, & Athens, offering sacrifices & admiring architecture, art, & historical landmarks. 1.7 1:25.

28 Paulus toured Greece, visiting Corinth, Sicyon, Argos, Epidaurus, Lacedaemon, & Olympia, sacrificing to Jupiter & admiring famous landmarks. He avoided enquiring into Greek cities' sentiments during war. At Apollonia, he met Perseus & his family, treating them with respect, & censured C. Sulpicius for his leniency. 2.3 1:55.

29 Aemilius announced Macedonia's new arrangements: they would be free people, paying half previous tribute to Rome, divided into 4 cantons with designated capital cities, & forbidden from intermarriage & land ownership across cantons. He also regulated mining, salt use, & ship-building. 2.6 2:10.

30 Aemilius' announcement received mixed reactions. While Macedonians welcomed liberty & reduced tribute, they lamented division into 4 cantons, fearing separation. Each canton had unique advantages: Bisaltae's warriors, Thessalonica's harbors, Edessa's cities, & Pelagones' rugged terrain, making each self-sufficient but distinct. 1.3 1:05.

31 Aemilius announced code of laws for Macedonia & investigated Aetolian involvement in war. Pro-Roman leaders in Greece denounced their opponents, leading to arrests & trials. Commissioners extended enquiry to Asia, punishing cities that had aided Perseus, & executing leaders who had fought against Rome. 2.5 2:05.

32 Aemilius defined Macedonia's status, electing senators & ordering leaders who served king to leave for Italy with their families. He implemented laws, celebrated Games with splendor, & hosted banquets, showcasing Roman magnificence & skill, & demonstrating that good commander knows how to entertain as well as conquer. 1.9 1:35.

33 Aemilius offered prayers & burned spoils, grand finale to Games. He generously distributed gifts to individuals, cities, & nations. spectators marveled at Macedonian treasures, which loaded onto ships to be transported to

Rome. Aemilius then marched to Pella, Spilaeum, & Epirus, ravaging Illyria along way. 1.5 1:15.

34 Anicius' army received plunder from Epirus, 400 denarii per cavalryman & 200 per foot soldier. 150,000 people captured, & 70 city walls destroyed. Paulus sailed back to Italy, while Anicius waited for ships to transport his army. In Asia, Romans attempted to negotiate truce between Eumenes & Gauls, but Solovetius remained defiant. 2.3 1:55.

35 Perseus, Gentius, & their children brought to Rome as prisoners, followed by Macedonians & Greek leaders. Paulus arrived later on 16-banked ship with Macedonian spoils. triumph was decreed for Paulus, Anicius, & Octavius, but Paulus faced calumny for maintaining discipline & limiting booty to 3,000 men. 1.6 1:20.

36 Servius Galba spoke against Paulus' triumph, citing soldiers' hard work & limited rewards. soldiers packed Capitol, voting against proposal. City leaders intervened, criticizing soldiers' actions & defending Paulus' right to triumph. tribunes agreed to restart proceedings, allowing further debate. 1.9 1:35.

37 Servilius defended Paulus, stating that he maintained discipline in his camp despite having mutinous soldiers. He criticized Galba for accusing Paulus without evidence, saying he should have waited until Paulus was private citizen to bring charges. Servilius argued that Paulus' actions justified & would be deemed so by people of Rome. 2.9 2:25.

38 Servilius appealed to soldiers, asking if they would allow someone to deny them triumph over Macedonians. He emphasized that triumph honors not just general but also soldiers & Roman people. He urged them to support Paulus' triumph, sharing in glory & fame of their victory. 2.7 2:15.

39 Servilius urged soldiers to support Paulus' triumph, emphasizing glory & fame of their victory. He asked if they would deny triumph to man who conquered Greece, & if they would let Perseus & his sons be kept from citizens' sight. He appealed to senate's decree & his own battle scars. 3.7 3:05.

40 Valerius Antias estimated gold & silver coinage in Paulus' triumphal procession at 120,000,000 sesterces, but actual amount was likely higher. Paulus' dignity & presence impressive, & he generously rewarded his soldiers. However, he suffered personal losses, including death of 2 sons, shortly before & after triumph. 1.7 1:25.

41 Paulus addressed Quirites, comparing his public success with his personal losses. He recounted his military victories, including capture of Perseus, & his triumph. However, he had lost 2 sons, leaving none to bear his name. He found solace in republic's good fortune, showing self-restraint in his grief. 2.3 1:55.

42 Octavius celebrated his naval triumph over Perseus, distributing money to his crew. senate decided to imprison Perseus & his son in Alba, while Bithys & hostages interned in Carseoli. Cotys' envoys ransomed his son & hostages, & senate returned them, gifting each envoy 2,000 ases, fostering goodwill with Thrace. 1.7 1:25.

43 L. Anicius triumphed over Gentius & Illyrians, displaying 27 pounds of gold, 13,000 denarii, 120,000 silver pieces, & captured standards. Each legionary received 45 denarii, centurions twice, & cavalry 3 times as much. Senate interned Gentius' family in Spoletium, later transferring them to Iguvium. Illyrian spoils included 220 barques, distributed to Corcyraeans, Apolloniates, & Dyrrhachians. According to Antias, 200,000 sesterces realised from sale of booty. 1.7 1:25.

44 Prusias, with his son Nicomedes, visited Rome, congratulating senate on their victories. He requested permission to sacrifice in Capitol & renew their alliance. senate granted his requests, except for land dispute, & offered presents & warships. Prusias was delighted, but Polybius portrayed him as unworthy & submissive. 3.6 3:00.

46 - 142 96 164 - 9 (589 - 745) 155
No copies of original source text exist
96 70.7 58:55 .46

46 No king can enter Rome. 337,022 citizens. Pomptine Marshes drained. 1.3 1:05.

47 598. Transalpine Ligurians subdued. By Consul Gaius Martius Figulus. Envoys see timber in Carthage. 1 :50.

48 324,000 citizens. Syria has Civil War. 3.2 2:40.

49 602-7 5, 3rd Punic War because Carthage attacked Massinisa. Dis Pater games in Tarentum. Lusitanian slaves set free. Pretender Andriscus attacks Macedonia. 4.2 3:30.

50 Prussia 2 of Bythinia killed by son. King Massinissa has baby at 86. Roman envoy to Massinissa ship wrecked. 1.8 1:30.

51 Yr 700 34 mile around Carthage besieged & captured. Naval battle at Carthage. Archaean War. .9 :45.

52 Quintus Caecilius Metellus triumph over Andriscus, Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus over Carthage & Hasdrubal Lucius Mumias Triumphs over Achaeans with munch booty. 1.5 1:15.

53 Proconsul Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Celtiberians & proconsul Quintius Fabius recovered large part of Lusitania after he had stormed several towns. .8 :40.

54 328,442 citizens. In Hispania, proconsul Quintus Fabius met with success but spoilt it because he concluded peace treaty with Viriathus on equal terms. .7 :35.

55 After Senate had refused to sign peace treaty, Marcus Popilius & his army defeated & routed by Numantines. By storming all its cities until he had reached Ocean, Decimus Junius subdued Lusitania completely, & when his soldiers refused to cross river Oblivion, he took standard from its bearer, carried it across water, & persuaded them to follow him. Syrians kill 10 year old King. 1.3 1:05.

56 Decimus Junius Brutus defeated Gallaecians, while Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was defeated by Vaccaeans; 317,933 citizens registered. In 619, Fulvius Flaccus subdued Vardaeans (135) & Marcus Cosconius defeated Scordiscians. In 620, Scipio Africanus was offered consulship to end Numantine war, but law forbade 2nd consulships. Gaius Fulvius sent to suppress Sicily's Servile War, started by Eunus & Cleon, who led 70,000 slaves against Rome. .9 :45.

57 Scipio Africanus Aemilianus besieged Numantia, restoring discipline in army. He forbade luxuries, expelled prostitutes, & enforced hard work & discipline. He accepted royal presents publicly, & tactically allowed enemy soldiers to forage for food, knowing it would exhaust their supplies faster. 1.1 :55.

58 Tiberius Gracchus passed land bill, limiting ownership to 1,000 iugera, & formed triumvirate with his brother & father-in-law. Tiberius Gracchus, facing insufficient land, proposed dividing king Attalus III's bequest among plebeians, who had been made greedy. Tiberius Gracchus was killed on Capitol by optimates, led by Publius Cornelius Nasica, while seeking reelection as tribune. 1.2 1:00.

59 Scipio Africanus Aemilianus sacked Numantia (622) & celebrated triumph. Publius Rupilius defeated Sicilian slaves (622), while Publius Licinius Crassus was killed by Aristonicus (623). Perperna accepted Aristonicus' surrender (130). Censors performed lustrum ceremony (625), registering 318,823 citizens. Scipio opposed law allowing unlimited tribuneships & was later found dead. 2 1:40.

60 Lucius Aurelius subdued Sardinians (628), Marcus Fulvius Flaccus defeated Ligurians (629), & Lucius Opimius sacked Fregellae. Censors performed lustrum ceremony (630), registering 394,736 citizens. Gaius Gracchus passed laws, including grain supply law & land bill (631), & founded colonies in Italy & Carthage. 1.3 1:05.

61 Gaius Sextius founded Aquae Sextiae (633) & Gnaeus Domitius defeated Allobroges (633). Gaius Gracchus was killed by Lucius Opimius (633) after occupying Aventine with an armed mob. Quintus Fabius Maximus defeated Allobroges & Bituitus, killing 120,000 men (633). Lucius Opimius was acquitted of unlawful imprisonment (634). 1 :50.

62 118 BC Quintus Marcius defeated Stynians. King Micipsa of Numidia died & left his kingdom to his sons Adherbal, Hiempsal, & Jugurtha. 117 BC Lucius Caecilius Metellus subdued Dalmatians. Jugurtha attacked & killed his brother Hiempsal. Adherbal was expelled from kingdom but restored by Senate. Metellus & Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus removed thirty-two members from Senate. .4 :20.

63 641 BC, Cimbrians defeated Roman army led by Consul Papirius Carbo in Illyricum. 640 BC, Consul Gaius Porcius fought unsuccessfully against Scordiscians in Thrace. censors performed lustrum ceremony; 394,336 citizens registered. Vestal virgins Aemilia, Licinia, & Marcia condemned for unchastity. In 642 BC, Consul Livius Drusus successfully fought against Scordiscians in Thrace. .4 :20.

64 643 BC, Adherbal was killed by Jugurtha in violation of senatorial decree. War was declared on Jugurtha, but Consul Calpurnius Bestia made treaty with him without permission. In 643 BC, Jugurtha came to Rome, accused of bribing senators, but fled trial & said: "What corrupt city! It will perish as soon as it finds someone to buy it." In 644 BC, Deputy Aulus Postumius was defeated by Jugurtha & made dishonorable peace treaty that Senate refused to ratify. .7 :35.

65 645 BC, Consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Jugurtha twice & devastated Numidia. In 646 BC, Consul Marcus Junius Silanus fought unsuccessfully against Cimbrians, who demanded land. Proconsul Marcus Minucius defeated Thracians. In 647 BC, Consul Lucius Cassius Longinus & his army massacred by Gallic Tigurini. .4 :20.

66 648 BC, Jugurtha, expelled by Gaius Marius, received help from Bocchus, king of Maurians. Bocchus' troops defeated, & he handed Jugurtha over to Marius in chains. Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Marius' quaestor, played key role in this event, ending war. 22W :08.

67 649 BC, Marcus Aurelius Scaurus was captured & killed by Cimbrians. Consul Gnaeus Manlius & proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio defeated, & their camps taken, with 80,000 soldiers & 40,000 servants killed. 650 BC, Jugurtha was killed in jail after leading Gaius Marius' triumphal procession. Marius' consulship was extended for second, third, & 4th time. 1 :50.

68 652 BC, Consul Gaius Marius defended his camp against Teutons & Ambronians, then defeated them in 2 battles, killing 200,000 enemies & capturing 90,000. In 653 BC, Marius was elected consul for 5th time & defeated Cimbrians, killing 160,000 enemies & capturing 60,000. 1.1 1:05.

69 652 BC, Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, supported by Gaius Marius, became tribune of plebs through violence. He passed land bill & exiled Metellus Numidicus, who refused to swear to uphold it. Marius, responsible for riot, confirmed exile & bought sixth consulship. Saturninus assassinated Gaius Memmius & was eventually killed by Senate. Quintus Caecilius Metellus was recalled from exile, & Manius Aquilius ended slave war in Sicily. .9 :35.

70 657 BC, Manius Aquilius was acquitted of extortion. In 657 BC, Proconsul Titus Didius defeated Celtiberians. In 658 BC, King Ptolemy Apion of Cyrene died, leaving Roman people as his inheritors. In 659 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla restored Ariobarzanes to throne of Cappadocia. In 662 BC, Publius Rutilius was exiled for extortion. In 663 BC, Senate tried to regain control of law courts from equestrian order. 1 :50.

71 663 BC, Tribune Marcus Livius Drusus appealed to allies & Italian nations, promising Roman citizenship. He forcibly passed laws on land, grain, & jurisdiction. Unable to keep his promise, he faced angry Italians considering defection. Hated by Senate, Drusus was assassinated in his home by an unknown person. .6 :30.

72 Italian nations revolted: Picentes, Vestinians, Marsians, Paelignians, Marrucinians, Samnites, & Lucanians. Picentes killed proconsul Quintus Servilius & Roman citizens in Asculum. Servius Galba was captured by Lucanians but freed by woman. Aesernia & Alba besieged. Latins & foreign nations sent troops to aid Rome. .5 :25.

73 Italian nations revolted: Picentes, Vestinians, Marsians, Paelignians, Marrucinians, Samnites, & Lucanians. Picentes killed proconsul Quintus Servilius & Roman citizens in Asculum. Servius Galba was captured by Lucanians but freed by woman. Aesernia & Alba besieged. Latins & foreign nations sent troops to aid Rome. .7 :35.

74 Gnaeus Pompeius defeated Picentes & Marsians. Gaius Marius fought Marsians with an unclear outcome. Freedmen allowed to serve in army for first time. Aulus Plotius defeated Umbrians, Lucius Porcius defeated Etruscans, & Nicomedes & Ariobarzanes restored to their thrones. .5 :25.

75 Aulus Postumius Albinus was killed by his army for suspected treason. Lucius Cornelius Sulla defeated Samnites, & Gnaeus Pompeius accepted Vestinians' surrender. Lucius Porcius fell in battle, but Cosconius & Lucanus defeated Samnites, killing Marius Egnatius. Sulla subdued Hirpinians, defeated Samnites, & returned to Rome to run for consul. .6 :30.

76 665 BC, Aulus Gabinius fought Lucanians, capturing many towns before his death. Sulpicius slaughtered Marrucinians, while Gnaeus Pompeius accepted surrender of Vestinians & Paelignians. In 666 BC, Marsians, defeated by Lucius Cinna & Caecilius Pius, sought peace. Pompeius captured Asculum, & Poppaedius Silo fell in battle. Mithridates dethroned Ariobarzanes & Nicomedes. .5 :25.

77 666 BC, Lucius Sulla entered Rome with an army, defeating Publius Sulpicius & Gaius Marius' factions. Twelve, including Marius' father & son, declared enemies by Senate. Sulpicius was killed by slave, who was later executed for betrayal. Marius escaped to Africa. Sulla reordered state, sent out colonies, & defeated Mithridates, who had invaded Phrygia. 1.1 :55.

78 Mithridates occupied Asia, imprisoned Quintus Oppius & Aquilius, & ordered massacre of Roman citizens in Asia. He attacked Rhodes but was defeated in naval battles. Archelaus, his deputy, occupied Athens with an army. region was plagued by disorders as cities & islands debated allegiance to Mithridates or Rome. .4 :20.

79 667 BC, Lucius Cornelius Cinna was expelled from Rome by Gnaeus Octavius, but bribed Appius Claudius' army to regain power. Cinna recalled Gaius Marius from Africa, & they waged war on Rome. tragic duel between 2 brothers occurred. Cinna & Marius besieged Rome with four armies, capturing Ostia & sacking it cruelly. .8 :40.

80 667 BC, Senate granted citizenship to Italian nations. Samnites joined Cinna & Marius, defeating Plautius. After capturing colonies, they entered Rome, killing consul Octavius & nobles like Marcus Antonius, Gaius & Lucius Caesar, & Crassus. In 668 BC, Marius appointed himself consul & died on January 15. 1.2 1:00.

81 669 BC, Lucius Sulla besieged Athens, which was occupied by Archelaus, an officer of Mithridates. After long siege, Sulla captured city in 668 BC & restored its freedom. Magnesia, only city in Asia loyal to Rome, bravely resisted Mithridates. Thracian raids into Macedonia are also described. 66W :16.

82 669, Sulla defeated king's army in Macedonia & Thessalia, killing 100,000 enemies & capturing camp. In 87, Sulla defeated & destroyed 2nd army & royal navy surrendered. Flaccus was murdered by his deputy Fimbria, who took command. Mithridates attacked Asia, & Thracians raided Macedonia. .5 :25.

83 Flavius Fimbria defeated Mithridates' commanders in Asia, capturing Pergamon & Troy, & recovering much of Asia. Sulla defeated Thracians in multiple battles. In 671 BC, Lucius Cinna & Gnaeus Papirius Carbo prepared war against Sulla, but Cinna was killed by his army & Carbo became sole consul. In 85 BC, Sulla made peace with Mithridates, gaining control of Asia, Bithynia, & Cappadocia. Fimbria, abandoned by his army, committed suicide. .8 :40.

84 Sulla demanded restoration of rights to citizens who fled to him, but Carbo's faction prevented an agreement. Senate unified to prevent Carbo's request for hostages from Italian towns & colonies. New citizens received voting rights, & freedmen registered in voting districts. Quintus Metellus Pius was defeated in Africa, & decree was passed to disband all armies. Preparations began for war against Sulla. .7 :25.

85 673, Sulla invaded Italy with his army & sent envoys for peace, but they mistreated by consul Gaius Norbanus. Sulla defeated Norbanus & approached Lucius Scipio's camp, where his soldiers defected to Sulla. Scipio was spared. Gnaeus Pompey joined Sulla with three-legion army, & many leading Romans followed, causing city to seem abandoned. .6 :20.

86 673: Gaius Marius, son of Gaius Marius, became consul through violence before age 20. Gaius Fabius was killed in Africa, & Lucius Philippus occupied Sardinia, expelling & killing Quintus Antonius. Sulla concluded treaty with Italian nations, securing their citizenship & voting rights. 674: Lucius Damasippus massacred Roman nobles, including Quintus Mucius Scaevola, at wish of consul Gaius Marius. War against Mithridates in Asia renewed. .7 :25.

87 672 BC Sulla defeated & destroyed Gaius Marius' army at Sacriportus, then besieged Marius in Praeneste. He recaptured Rome from his enemies & repelled Marius' attempt to escape. Sulla's deputies achieved similar victories, securing successful outcome for his campaign. 30W :7.

88 Sulla defeated Carbo's army at Clusium, Faventia, & Fidentia, & near Rome at Porta Collina, restoring state. He then executed 8,000 surrendered soldiers in Villa publica, established proscription list, & ordered massacres in Rome & Italy. Marius, besieged at Praeneste, committed suicide by slave after failed escape attempt. .8 :40.

89 675: Marcus Brutus committed suicide to avoid capture by Pompey's ships. Pompey killed Gnaeus Papirius Carbo in Sicily. Sulla became dictator, strengthened republic, & expanded Senate. He sold proscribed possessions, earning 350,000,000 sesterces. Pompey defeated & killed Gnaeus Domitius & king Hierta in Africa, & celebrated his African triumph at age 24. 1.4 1:10.

90 678 78 BC: Sulla died & was buried on Campus Martius. Marcus Lepidus tried to revoke Sulla's acts, causing war, but was expelled by Quintus Catulus & died in Sardinia. Marcus Brutus was killed by Gnaeus Pompey in Cisalpine Gaul. Quintus Sertorius launched war in Hispania Ulterior. .4 :20.

91 679 77 BC: Gnaeus Pompey, still Roman knight, was sent against Sertorius with proconsular powers. Sertorius captured cities & subdued tribes. Appius Claudius defeated Thracians in multiple battles. Quintus Metellus defeated Lucius Hirtulus, quaestor of Sertorius, & his army. 42W :10.

92 680 76 BC: Gnaeus Pompey fought Sertorius with mixed results. Quintus Metellus defeated Sertorius & Perperna, but Pompey's subsequent battle was inconclusive. Sertorius was besieged at Clunia, but repelled attackers. Proconsul Curio fought Dardanians in Thrace. Sertorius executed friends & allies on false accusations of treachery. .5 :25.

93 75 BC Proconsul Publius Servilius conquered Isaurians & captured pirate cities in Cilicia. King Nicomedes of Bithynia bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, making it province. Mithridates allied with Sertorius & declared war on Rome. Mithridates defeated consul Marcus Aurelius Cotta at Calchedon. Sertorius forced Pompey & Metellus to retreat, Metellus to Hispania Ulterior & Pompey to Gaul. .5 :25.

94 682 73-71 BC: Consul Lucius Licinius Lucullus successfully fought cavalry battles against Mithridates, but restrained his mutinous soldiers from pursuing pitched battle. Deiotarus, Gallograecian tetrarch, defeated Mithridates' deputies in Phrygia. Meanwhile, Gnaeus Pompey waged victorious war against Sertorius in Hispania. .2 :10.

95 683 73 BC: Proconsul Gaius Curio subdued Dardanians in Thrace. 74 gladiators led by Crixus & Spartacus escaped from Capua, gathered slaves, & defeated praetor Publius Varenus' army. Lucius Lucullus destroyed Mithridates' army near Cyzicus in 72 BC, forcing him to flee to Pontus. .4 :20.

96 684 72-71 BC Praetor Quintus Arrius defeated Crixus & 20,000 runaway slaves. Consul Gnaeus Lentulus & praetor Quintus Arrius defeated by Spartacus. Sertorius was killed by conspirators in his eighth year of command. Marcus Perpenna succeeded him but was defeated & killed by Gnaeus Pompey. Proconsul Gaius Cassius & praetor Gnaeus Manlius failed against Spartacus, leaving war to praetor Marcus Crassus. .6 :30.

97 Gannicus w/ 35,000 & Spartacus w/ 60,000 killed. Lucullus defeats Mithridates in Pontus 60,000 killed. .6 :30.

98 900,000 citizens. 2 Legions refuse to follow Lucullus to Armenia. Pirates defeated in Sicily. .6 :30.

99 Pompey rids sea of pirates in 40 days. .6 :30.

100 Cretans subdued. Parthians vs Armenians. .4 :20.

101 Mithridates defeated. Hiberians & Albanians defeated. .5 :25.

102 Pontus becomes province. Jews subdued. Cataline conspiracy. .5 :25.

103 1104 Allobrogians & Lusitanians subdued. Caesar passes agrarian laws. Thracian War. Cicero exiled. .9 :45.

104 Aedui & Sequani ask Caesar to invade Germany. Ambiani, Suessioni, Viruomandi, & Atrebates surrender. 1 :50.

105 Cato in irons. Caesar invades Germany & Britain. .6 :30.

106 Julia dies. Crassus dies in Parthia. .6 :30.

107 Treverians, Ambiorix & Eburones, Vercingetorix & Arvernians. Bituriges. .9 :45.

108 Battle of Alesia. Cassius & Bibulus fight of Parthians in Syria. .5 :25.

109 Caesar crosses Rubicon. .6 :30.

110 Massiliotes defeated in 2 naval battle. Juba kills Curio in battle. .7 :35.

111 Rufus exiled & defeated. Cleopatra exiled. Battle of Pharsalus. .7 :35.

112 Pompey killed. Cleopatra reinstated. Cato marches across Sahara. .8 :40.

113 Caesar defeats Pontus & fights Juba. Antony kills 800 rioters in Rome. .7 :25.

114 War in Syria. Cato stabs self. Bellovaces defeated. .6 :30.

115 Caesar triumphs Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, & Africa. 150,000 citizens. .4 :20.

116 Caesar Triumphs over Spain & becomes eternal dictator. 1.1 :55.

117 4th & Martian legions defect to Octavius. .8 :40.

118 Brutus battles Antony. .4 :20.

119 Octavian consul at 19. .8 :40.

120 Octavian, Antony & Lepidus proscribe 130 senators .8 :40.

121 Cassius defeats Dolabella at Laosicia. 95W :23.

122 Defeat Thracians. 46W :10.

123 Octavian & Antony Vs Brutus & Caius. .4 :20.

124 Battle of Philippi. .4 :20.

125 Octavian deafeats Antonys & invades Rome. .4 :20.

126 Caesar sacked Perugia. 23W :05.

127 Drive Partian from Syria. .7 :35.

128 Defeat Parthians in Syria. 2 naval battles Caesar vs Pompeius. .3 :30.

129 Octavian defeats Pompious. .5 :25.

130 Antony retreats 300 miles 21 days w/ 18 legions, loses 18K men. .5 :25.

131 Iapydes, Dalmatians, Pannonians & Armenia subdued. .4 :20.

132 Dalmatians in Illyricum subdued. .4 :20.

133 End of 22 yr civil war. .5 :25.

134 Gallic census, war with Basterni, Moesians. 51W :12.

135 Thracians, Spaniards & Salassi subdued. 145W :35.

136 Parthian peace. 152W :36.

137 Dalmatians & Pannonians subdued. 14W :04.

138 Raetians subdued 30W :06.

139 Gallic uprising from census subdued. 53W :12.

140 Thracians, Cherusci, Tencteri, Chauci subdued 53W :12.

141 : 739 16 Tiberius Nero, brother of of Drusus, subdued Dalmatians & Pannonians. 78W :18.

142 Drusus fought across aRhine but fell off horse & died. .4 :20.