Meteorology

Philosophical Theories and Principles

Chapter 4-1 Science of being as being investigates first principles and causes.

Chapter 4-2 'Being' has many senses, studied by one central science.

Chapter 4-3 Philosophy examines axioms and substances; fundamental principles underlie all.

Chapter 4-4 Impossible for something to be and not be simultaneously.

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Meteorology and Natural Phenomena

Chapter 1-1 Meteorology studies natural events, including comets, winds, and earthquakes.

Chapter 1-2 Fire, air, water, earth; their motion explains worldly phenomena.

Chapter 1-3 Air, water, and their positions are key to understanding elements.

Chapter 1-4 Sun warms earth; vapors create flames, shooting-stars, and torches.

Chapter 1-5 Sky colors from air's condensation; effects seen in various forms.

Chapter 1-6 Comets, some say, are planets, others argue about their tails.

Chapter 1-7 Comets form from fiery principles mixing with terrestrial exhalations.

Chapter 1-8 The Milky Way theories vary; none fully explain its nature.

Chapter 1-9 Comets and the Milky Way result from celestial matter gathering.

Chapter 1-10 Water and air interactions form processes; the sun causes changes.

Chapter 1-11 Rain, snow, hail differ in degree and quantity, not nature.

Chapter 1-12 Hail forms when water freezes quickly due to temperature drop.

Chapter 1-13 Winds arise from air movement; rivers from gradual water accumulation.

Chapter 1-14 Land and sea change as the earth grows and decays.

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Meteorology and Natural Phenomena

Chapter 2-1 The sea's nature, saltiness, and origins have intrigued many. Ancient writers believed the sea had springs because they wanted the earth and sea to have foundational roots, implying the earth's significance in the universe. They thought the sun dried up moisture around the earth, forming the sea from the remaining water. Some believed the sea was the earth's sweat, explaining its saltiness, while others thought saltiness came from earth-like ashes in water. The sea's vastness and disconnected parts make springs unlikely. Instead, the sea's observable flow and depth variations support a different understanding.

Chapter 2-2 The origin of the sea and its saltiness has been debated. Earlier writers considered the sea the main body of water, analogous to the main bodies of fire, air, and earth. River water is not stable, unlike the sea, leading some to think rivers originate from it. However, this raises the question of why the sea is salt and not sweet. The sun's processes lift the finest water, which returns as rain, leaving salt behind. Animal bodies show similar processes, where sweet liquid becomes salt through digestion, suggesting the sea's saltiness might result from similar earth admixtures.

Chapter 2-3 Why is the sea salt? Is it eternal or will it dry up? Some, like Democritus, thought it would disappear, but this idea is fanciful. The sea's persistence aligns with the eternal universe. If the sea and universe originated together, then the sea remains as long as the sun lifts sweet water, which returns as rain, maintaining the sea's volume. The earth's processes show a cycle of drying and moistening, explaining local changes but not the sea's complete disappearance. The sea's saltiness might stem from earth admixtures, similar to how digestion leaves salty residues, suggesting an ongoing natural process.

Chapter 2-4 Winds originate from moist and dry evaporations. The sun's heat draws up moist evaporation, while dry evaporation creates winds. Wind and rain differ fundamentally: rain comes from moist vapors, wind from dry ones. The sun and earth's heat generate both types of evaporation. Winds blow based on seasonal evaporation levels, influenced by the sun's position. Winds from the north and south dominate due to the sun's indirect influence, with northern regions producing more evaporation. Wind courses are oblique, determined by the heavens' motion. Wind's origin is from below, while the motion starts above.

Chapter 2-5 The sun influences wind formation and dissipation. Small evaporations are dispersed by the sun's greater heat. Excessive heat or cold can prevent wind formation. Calm weather often occurs around Orion's rising. Etesian winds blow post-summer solstice due to balanced evaporation and heat. North winds (Etesiae) are consistent, unlike south winds. North winds originate from water-rich arctic regions, melting snow fuels Etesiae. South winds lack such sources. North winds dominate due to geographic proximity to the north. The earth's shape influences wind patterns, with winds blowing from designated poles and regions.

Chapter 2-6 Wind positions, oppositions, and names are explained. Opposite winds cannot blow simultaneously; adjacent winds can. Winds are classified as northerly or southerly, based on their cold or warm nature. East winds are warmer due to prolonged sunlight. North winds (Aparctias) and south winds (Notus) are key winds, with others classified by their intermediary positions. Winds from the north are more frequent due to proximity. Some winds, like Thrascias and Meses, have no contraries. Winds' effects include fair weather, rain, hail, and lightning, influenced by their origins and paths. Earthquakes also impact wind patterns.

Chapter 2-7 Earthquakes are caused by subterranean wind movements. Anaxagoras, Anaximenes, and Democritus offered theories. Anaxagoras suggested ether trapped below the earth causes earthquakes. Democritus linked earthquakes to excess rainwater or drying earth drawing water. Anaximenes believed the earth breaks up when wet or dry, causing earthquakes. These theories have limitations, failing to account for specific earthquake patterns and locations. Earthquakes often occur in places with spongy or cavernous earth, like the Hellespont, Achaea, and Sicily. Earth's internal wind movements, not water, are the primary cause of earthquakes, akin to body tremors and spasms.

Chapter 2-8 Wet and dry evaporations in the earth cause earthquakes. Earth's moisture generates wind through heat, leading to earthquakes. Wind's force and movement, often in calm conditions, result in severe earthquakes, especially at night or noon. Earthquake-prone regions include those with currents and cavernous land. Earthquakes are more common in spring and autumn due to increased evaporation. The wind's movement in the earth causes tremors and throbbing. Earthquakes may coincide with moon eclipses due to wind movements. Subterranean wind is the primary cause, evidenced by phenomena like subterranean noises and tidal waves.

Chapter 2-9 Lightning, thunder, whirlwinds, fire-winds, and thunderbolts share a common cause: exhalations in the atmosphere. Moist exhalations condense into clouds, while dry ones cause wind. Thunder occurs when dry exhalations collide within clouds, producing sound. Lightning follows as the exhalation ignites, appearing before thunder due to the speed of light. Theories by Empedocles and Anaxagoras propose pre-existing fire in clouds, but lack sufficient explanation. Lightning and thunder result from exhalations in clouds. As the exhalations escape, they cause thunder and lightning, similar to wind on the earth and earthquakes below.

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Meteorology and Natural Phenomena

Chapter 2-1 Sea's saltiness debated; origins from drying earth, sweat, or ashes.

Chapter 2-2 Sea's origin linked to water cycle, sun's process, earth's admixtures.

Chapter 2-3 Sea's eternity debated; saltiness due to earth's admixtures and cycles.

Chapter 2-4 Winds come from moist and dry evaporations; sun influences both.

Chapter 2-5 Sun affects wind formation; Etesian winds blow post-summer solstice.

Chapter 2-6 Wind positions and effects explained; opposite winds can't blow simultaneously.

Chapter 2-7 Earthquakes caused by subterranean wind movements; ancient theories discussed.

Chapter 2-8 Wet and dry evaporations cause earthquakes; regions and timing noted.

Chapter 2-9 Lightning, thunder, whirlwinds arise from atmospheric exhalations and collisions.

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Meteorology and Natural Phenomena

Chapter 3-1 Thunder and lightning occur when exhalation is scattered, transitory, and rare. Hurricanes form from denser exhalation released rapidly. When exhalation collides and circles, it forms whirlwinds. Whirlwinds drag clouds and objects due to spiral movement. Fire-winds occur when burning clouds descend. Thunderbolts result from rare exhalation; "bright" thunderbolts pass quickly, "smoky" ones scorch. Exhalations lead to various weather phenomena. Evidence shows exhalation's role in creating these events, like in the Ephesus temple fire. Thus, thunder, lightning, hurricanes, fire-winds, whirlwinds, and thunderbolts all originate from the same exhalation.

Chapter 3-2 The halo, rainbow, mock suns, and rods share a common cause. Haloes appear as circles around the sun, moon, or stars, indicating rain if intact, wind if broken. Rainbows form semicircles opposite the sun and display red, green, and purple bands. Mock suns and rods are reflections seen near the sun, often at sunrise or sunset. These phenomena result from atmospheric reflections on clouds, water, or other surfaces. Rainbows and moon rainbows are rare due to the need for specific conditions. Reflections from small, smooth particles create these varied atmospheric effects.

Chapter 3-3 Halos are circular reflections around the sun or moon, indicating rain or fine weather. They form when air and vapor condense uniformly, acting as a mirror. The reflection's circular shape results from lines forming angles on a plane. Halos near the earth indicate calmer conditions, as wind disrupts their formation. Halos are more common around the moon, as the sun's heat dissolves atmospheric condensation quickly. Halos around stars indicate minor atmospheric condensation, insufficient for significant weather predictions. Thus, halos reflect atmospheric conditions and serve as weather indicators based on their appearance and behavior.

Chapter 3-4 The rainbow is a reflection seen opposite the sun, forming semicircles. It appears when the sun is low, and air forms raindrops but not rain. Reflections from water particles create the rainbow's colors: red, green, and violet. White light through dark media appears red, hence the outer rainbow band is red. The inner rainbow shows inverted colors due to weaker reflection. Rainbows are visible only under specific conditions, with light reflecting from condensed air. The color order and intensity vary based on the angle and distance of reflection. Double rainbows appear fainter and reversed.

Chapter 3-5 Rainbows are semicircles, never full circles. They form when the sun is low, with visible arcs larger after the autumn equinox. Reflection angles determine the rainbow's shape and size. The visible arc is largest at sunrise or sunset, smallest at noon. When the sun is high, rainbows cannot form as their visible arc is less than a semicircle. The rainbow's appearance depends on the sun's position and the observer's location. Reflection from condensed air and water particles creates the rainbow, with the visible segment always opposite the sun. Rainbows illustrate light's reflection properties.

Chapter 3-6 Mock suns and rods result from atmospheric reflections. Mock suns appear near the sun, while rods reflect light unevenly due to varying cloud density. Uniform air density causes mock suns to appear white, indicating potential rain. Mock suns are more common at sunrise and sunset, not above or below the sun. Rods appear when clouds have uneven composition, reflecting red, green, or yellow colors. Sight weakens with distance, affecting reflections. Mock suns are reliable rain indicators, especially in southern regions. Thus, atmospheric conditions and reflections create various visual phenomena like mock suns and rods.

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Meteorology and Natural Phenomena

Chapter 3-1 Thunder, lightning, hurricanes, and whirlwinds caused by atmospheric exhalations' behavior.

Chapter 3-2 Halos, rainbows, mock suns, rods result from atmospheric reflections and conditions.

Chapter 3-3 Halos circle sun or moon, indicating weather conditions like rain.

Chapter 3-4 Rainbows form opposite sun from water reflections, showing distinct colors.

Chapter 3-5 Rainbows are semicircles, visible arcs vary with sun's position.

Chapter 3-6 Mock suns, rods appear near sun due to atmospheric reflections.

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Meteorology and Natural Phenomena

Chapter 4-1 Elements have four qualities: hot, cold (active), dry, and moist (passive). Heat and cold are active, determining and changing things, while moist and dry are passive, acting as subjects. Hot and cold act on moist and dry elements, leading to natural change and destruction, observed in plants and animals. Concoction is driven by heat, leading to true becoming, while putrefaction is the opposite, indicating destruction. Putrefaction results when natural heat is destroyed by external heat, causing moisture to evaporate. Putrefaction is less common in cold seasons and more in hot ones, as environmental heat plays a role.

Chapter 4-2 Concoction, driven by heat, includes ripening, boiling, and broiling, while inconcoction, driven by cold, includes rawness and imperfect boiling. Concoction perfects the passive qualities, with the natural heat of an object achieving this. Baths and other external factors may aid digestion, but internal heat is primary. Concoction ends in the natural state of a thing or a presupposed state. When the matter is mastered, we observe signs of health. Concoction makes things thicker and hotter, while inconcoction is an imperfect state due to cold, affecting the passive qualities. Thus, concoction and inconcoction reflect the influence of heat and cold.

Chapter 4-3 Ripening, a form of concoction, perfects fruit by processing its nutriment. When seeds can reproduce, the fruit is ripe. Concoction turns spirituous and watery states into earthy ones, condensing and incorporating matter. Rawness, the opposite, is an imperfect state due to inadequate natural heat, leaving the fruit spirituous or watery. Boiling, another concoction, involves heating liquid outside the object, extracting moisture. Broiling, involving dry heat, dries the outside more. Concoction and inconcoction in nature parallel artificial processes, like food digestion resembling boiling. Imperfect broiling lacks sufficient heat, leading to incomplete results. Thus, boiling and broiling reflect heat's transformative role.

Chapter 4-4 Bodies' passive qualities, moist and dry, are crucial, with the moist making the dry determinable. Earth represents the dry, water the moist, forming all bodies. Determined bodies are hard or soft; hard surfaces resist pressure, soft ones yield without displacing. Absolute hardness and softness relate to touch, which is the standard. A body’s nature is influenced by the predominant element, with determined bodies involving concretion. Concretion results from the interaction of heat or cold with moisture. These processes, whether natural or artificial, shape bodies’ qualities, demonstrating how heat and cold impact the physical properties of various substances.

Chapter 4-5 A body determined by its boundary is hard or soft and must be concrete. Concretion, linked to drying, is caused by heat or cold, impacting water or water-containing bodies. Dry heat or cold solidifies bodies, with those solidified by heat dissolving in water, and those by cold in fire. Concretion and drying involve heat, with external or internal heat carrying off moisture. Boiling involves heating liquids externally, while internal heat drives off moisture as vapor. Drying and concretion processes shape bodies, making them harder or softer, and highlight how heat and cold determine the physical properties of substances.

Chapter 4-6 Liquefaction involves condensation into water or melting solids. Water or earth-water mixtures solidify via dry heat or cold, and dissolve in opposite conditions. Some solidify by water (cold), while aqueous bodies, solidified by heat, dissolve in water. Mixed bodies solidify by heat or cold, thickening during the process. Soft bodies solidify when moisture leaves; some heat causes initial moisture release. Frozen earth-water mixtures melt in heat. Metal and stone may solidify by heat, dissolve in water, or resist melting. Liquefaction, solidification, and drying involve interactions between heat, cold, and moisture, explaining how substances transition between solid and liquid states.

Chapter 4-7 If a body contains more water than earth, fire thickens it; if it contains more earth, fire solidifies it. Hence, natron, salt, stone, and potter’s clay must contain more earth. Oil presents a problem: neither cold nor heat solidifies it but both thicken it. This is because oil contains air. Cold thickens oil by turning air into water, while heat thickens and whitens it by evaporating water. Fire thickens but doesn’t dry oil due to its glutinous nature. Bodies made of earth and water vary: some solidify and thicken by boiling, losing water as they do.

Chapter 4-8 Bodies are formed by heat and cold, which operate by thickening and solidifying. Heat and cold are active agents, while the moist and dry are passive. Mixed bodies, including plants, animals, and metals, consist of earth and water. These bodies differ by their sensory qualities and other characteristics, such as their aptitude to melt or solidify. Concoction and heat play a key role in forming mixed bodies. Bodies that admit solidification do so by losing either heat or moisture. Water-dominated bodies solidify by heat loss, while earthy bodies solidify by moisture loss.

Chapter 4-9 Softening bodies have more earth than water, while solidifying ones have less moisture. Softening agents include fire for bodies like iron and horn. Some bodies can be softened by water, like wool and earth. Bodies can be bent or straightened based on their composition. Some can be broken or comminuted, depending on their pores. Impressible bodies can be molded; non-impressible ones can’t. Squeezable bodies contract under pressure. Tractile bodies elongate, and malleable ones move with a blow. Fissile bodies split, while others don’t. Viscous bodies are tractile, friable ones aren’t. Combustible bodies burn, while non-combustible ones don’t.

Chapter 4-10 Homogeneous bodies differ in touch, smell, taste, and color. Examples include metals (gold, copper), stones, and substances from animals (flesh, bone) and plants (wood, bark). These bodies are made of earth and water, with active agents being heat and cold. Liquids that evaporate are water-based, while those that don’t are earthy. Solid bodies formed by cold include ice and snow; those by heat include pottery and cheese. Some bodies solidify by both heat and cold. Bodies like gold, silver, and lead melt by heat. Bodies with earth preponderance (wood, bone) solidify by refrigeration and are less likely to melt.

Chapter 4-11 Water-based bodies are generally cold unless they contain foreign heat, like lye and urine. Earth-based bodies, such as lime and ashes, are hot due to the heat involved in their formation. Cold is considered the matter of bodies, with earth and water embodying it. Bodies formed by earth and water, like blood and semen, are typically hot when in their natural state. Mixed bodies can be hot or cold, depending on their dominant element. Solid and hard bodies, when deprived of heat, become coldest and can reach the highest temperatures when exposed to fire.

Chapter 4-12 Homogeneous bodies, like flesh and bone, are made of earth and water, shaped by heat and cold. These bodies consist of elements defined by their function, like flesh and sinew. Nature’s processes form these bodies, differentiating them by qualities like hardness and softness. Heat and cold, along with motion, shape these bodies. Non-homogeneous parts, like hands or feet, are formed by nature, not just heat and cold. Understanding homogeneous bodies involves knowing their material and formal causes, along with their generation and destruction. After explaining homogeneous bodies, we must also consider non-homogeneous ones and complex bodies like humans and plants.

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Meteorology and Natural Phenomena

Chapter 4-1 Elements have four qualities: hot, cold (active), dry, moist (passive).

Chapter 4-2 Concoction by heat; ripening, boiling, broiling. Inconcoction by cold.

Chapter 4-3 Ripening perfects fruit's moisture; rawness is its imperfect state.

Chapter 4-4 Passive qualities: moist and dry, determine hardness, softness in bodies.

Chapter 4-5 Drying is due to heat or cooling, external or internal.

Chapter 4-6 Liquefaction: condensation into water, melting of solidified bodies.

Chapter 4-7 Oil's air content prevents solidification; both heat and cold thicken.

Chapter 4-8 Bodies form by heat and cold, thickening and solidifying them.

Chapter 4-9 Softening agents include fire; some bodies soften by water.

Chapter 4-10 Homogeneous bodies differ in touch, smell, taste, and color.

Chapter 4-11 Water-based bodies are cold; earth-based bodies are generally hot.

Chapter 4-12 Homogeneous bodies shaped by heat and cold, forming complex structures.

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