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The Study of Good and Virtue
Chapter 1-1 Every art and inquiry aims at some good, distinguishing between activities and products.
Chapter 1-2 If there is an ultimate end of actions, desired for its own sake, it must be the chief good.
Chapter 1-3 Precision in discussions about fine and just actions varies with their nature.
Chapter 1-4 The highest good is commonly identified as happiness, with various opinions on its nature.
Chapter 1-5 Men often equate happiness with pleasure, honor, or money.
Chapter 1-6 Discussing the universal good is challenging due to varying interpretations.
Chapter 1-7 The good varies by action and art, such as health in medicine or victory in strategy.
Chapter 1-8 Goods are divided into three classes: external, soul-related, and bodily.
Chapter 1-9 Happiness might be seen as a divine gift, but it also results from virtue and learning.
Chapter 1-10 Happiness should be assessed over a complete life, not just in moments.
Chapter 1-11 The fortunes of friends and descendants impact happiness but not decisively.
Chapter 1-12 Happiness is more about being prized than praised, akin to how gods and exemplary individuals are regarded.
Chapter 1-13 Happiness involves virtuous activity of the soul, so understanding virtue is crucial.

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The Study of Good and Virtue
Chapter 1-1 Every art aims at some good; master arts' ends are preferred.
Chapter 1-2 The chief good guides all actions; politics aims at this.
Chapter 1-3 Precision varies by subject; educated judges know what precision requires.
Chapter 1-4 Happiness is the highest good; different views exist on happiness.
Chapter 1-5 Pleasure, honour, and contemplation offer different views on happiness.
Chapter 1-6 Different goods have distinct definitions; universal good is elusive.
Chapter 1-7 Final good is always pursued for itself; happiness is final.
Chapter 1-8 Goods are categorized by their relation to soul or body.
Chapter 1-9 Happiness might result from virtue or divine providence.
Chapter 1-10 A person’s happiness is not fully judged until death.
Chapter 1-11 Friends’ fortunes influence happiness but do not fully change it.
Chapter 1-12 Happiness is not praised but considered more divine and perfect.
Chapter 1-13 Happiness requires understanding virtue and studying the soul’s nature.

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The Study of Virtue
Chapter 1 Virtue is of two kinds: intellectual and moral. Intellectual virtue grows through teaching, requiring experience and time. Moral virtue arises from habit, hence its name derived from ethos (habit).
Chapter 2 Our inquiry aims not for theoretical knowledge but practical goodness. Actions determine character states, so understanding how to act properly is crucial.
Chapter 3 States of character are indicated by pleasure or pain from actions. Temperate individuals delight in abstaining from pleasures, while self-indulgent people find it painful.
Chapter 4 We must act justly and temperately to become just and temperate. Just acts do not make one just automatically; the actions must be done correctly and with the right condition.
Chapter 5 Virtue must be a state of character, distinct from passions and faculties. Passions like anger and fear are feelings accompanied by pleasure or pain, while faculties are the capacities to experience these feelings.
Chapter 6 Virtue is a state of character that makes one good and effective. Every virtue improves both the individual and their work.
Chapter 7 Virtue applies to individual actions and emotions, distinguishing between excess and deficiency. Courage, for instance, is the mean between recklessness and cowardice.
Chapter 8 Dispositions can be either vices (excess or deficiency) or virtues (means). Extreme states oppose each other and the mean, which lies between them.
Chapter 9 Moral virtue is a mean between two vices—one of excess, the other of deficiency. Achieving this balance is difficult, as it requires finding the right measure in various situations.

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The Study of Virtue
Chapter 1 Virtue is intellectual (learned) or moral (formed by habit).
Chapter 2 Virtues arise from practice, not nature; moderation prevents excess.
Chapter 3 Character states are shown by pleasure or pain from actions.
Chapter 4 Just and temperate actions require proper conditions, not just knowledge.
Chapter 5 Virtues are states of character, not passions or faculties.
Chapter 6 Virtue is a state that makes both the individual and their actions excellent, aiming for the intermediate between excess and deficiency.
Chapter 7 Virtue finds the mean in specific cases: courage, temperance, and liberality are examples of balanced states.
Chapter 8 The extremes oppose each other more than the intermediate state, with some extremes showing more opposition.
Chapter 9 Virtue is difficult to achieve as it requires balancing extremes and finding the right mean in varied circumstances.

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Exploration of Virtue and Vice
Chapter 3-1 Virtue relates to voluntary actions; distinction between voluntary and involuntary.
Chapter 3-2 Choice involves deliberation, differs from voluntary actions and mere opinions.
Chapter 3-3 Deliberation focuses on means to achieve ends within our control.
Chapter 3-4 Wish reflects personal perception of good, not an objective standard.
Chapter 3-5 Virtue and vice are within our control; actions are voluntary.
Chapter 3-6 Virtues are means between extremes of feelings like fear and confidence.
Chapter 3-7 Bravery involves facing noble dangers appropriately, avoiding extremes.
Chapter 3-8 Courage varies: citizen-soldiers and professionals differ from passion-driven bravery.
Chapter 3-9 Bravery includes moral and intellectual understanding, not just physical courage.
Chapter 3-10 True bravery balances noble motives, fear, and confidence.
Chapter 3-11 Temperance balances desires; self-indulgence leads to excess and blame.
Chapter 3-12 Self-indulgence is voluntary and blameworthy, unlike involuntary cowardice.

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Exploration of Virtue and Vice
Chapter 3-1 Distinguish voluntary from involuntary; praise and blame are given accordingly.
Chapter 3-2 Choice is voluntary but differs from general voluntary actions.
Chapter 3-3 Deliberation concerns means, not ends; we deliberate about achievable means.
Chapter 3-4 Wish relates to apparent good; not necessarily the true good.
Chapter 3-5 Virtue and vice are voluntary because they depend on choice.
Chapter 3-6 Wickedness is voluntary; ignorance leads to responsibility for actions.
Chapter 3-7 Vices of the body are blameworthy if within our control.
Chapter 3-8 End perceptions vary; virtue and vice depend on personal choice.
Chapter 3-9 Courage is a mean between fear and confidence in actions.
Chapter 3-10 Citizen-soldier courage is valued; professional soldiers may falter under strain.
Chapter 3-11 Natural appetites can be excessive; self-indulgence is blameworthy, temperance balances.
Chapter 3-12 Self-indulgence is voluntary, unlike cowardice; desires must align rationally.

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Exploration of Virtue and Vice
Chapter 4-1 Liberality concerns the giving and taking of wealth, with the liberal person praised for their generosity rather than for other virtues like military prowess or judicial wisdom. Prodigality and meanness are viewed as excesses or deficiencies in handling wealth. Prodigality involves excessive spending and self-indulgence, while meanness signifies an excessive concern with acquiring wealth and a reluctance to give. A liberal person gives wisely and appropriately, finding joy in giving and taking from the right sources. Prodigality and meanness, by contrast, show flawed character, with prodigals often taking from improper sources and misusing wealth.
Chapter 4-2 Magnificence is a virtue related to large-scale expenditures, exceeding liberality in scale and requiring fittingness and grandeur. It involves spending large sums in a manner that is fitting to the circumstances, surpassing mere liberal giving. Magnificence is demonstrated through grand acts like equipping a trireme or heading a sacred embassy. The magnificent person balances the result with the expense, aiming for excellence and beauty in their expenditures. They spend for honor and public good, contrasting with vulgarity and niggardliness, which involve inappropriate or showy expenditures and lack of taste.
Chapter 4-3 The magnificent person resembles an artist in their ability to make large expenditures tastefully, ensuring the result matches or exceeds the expense. They are liberal but on a grander scale, focusing on honor and suitability. Magnificence involves spending on public or significant occasions, like weddings or civic events, and on enduring works. It requires substantial means and high standing, as a poor person cannot be truly magnificent. Expenditure must be appropriate to one's means and the occasion, avoiding excess and vulgarity, ensuring that even small-scale efforts are executed with grandeur.
Chapter 4-4 The concept of honor involves a balance akin to that seen in virtues like liberality. Honor, like wealth, can be desired excessively or insufficiently. We praise the ambitious person who seeks honor rightly but criticize the one who seeks it excessively or from inappropriate sources. Conversely, we also commend the unambitious individual for their moderation but fault them for lacking the desire for honor even when deserved. Thus, honor's mean is not named, leading to extremes being seen as contradictory. This reflects the general difficulty in defining virtues where the mean remains unnamed, and extremes are clearer.
Chapter 4-5 Good temper represents a mean concerning anger, as it lies between irascibility and inirascibility. The good-tempered person is praised for managing anger appropriately—directing it correctly, at the right times, and for suitable durations. Conversely, those who are not angry when they should be are deemed foolish, while those who are excessively angry are seen as problematic. The extremes of anger, from excessive rage to lack of anger, are both blameworthy. The good-tempered person avoids both extremes, managing anger with moderation and propriety.
Chapter 4-6 In social interactions, people fall into two extremes: obsequiousness and churlishness. The obsequious person seeks to please at any cost, while the churlish person is unyieldingly contentious. The commendable middle ground involves responding to social situations appropriately without seeking to please excessively or being overly contentious. This balanced approach is akin to friendship, characterized by appropriate and fair treatment of others based on honor and expediency. The person who manages this balance well has not received a specific name, highlighting the absence of a term for this virtuous mean.
Chapter 4-7 The virtue opposed to boastfulness also lacks a specific name. Boastfulness involves claiming more than one possesses, while mock-modesty involves downplaying one's achievements. The virtuous mean is truthfulness, where a person accurately represents their qualities and achievements. Those who boast without ulterior motives are seen as contemptible, but the severity increases if their boasting is for gain. Mock-modesty can be more attractive but can also be insincere. The truthful person avoids falsehood, being characterized by honesty in both life and speech, standing in contrast to both boastfulness and mock-modesty.
Chapter 4-8 In social interactions involving humor and amusement, there is a mean between excess and deficiency. Excessive humor can become vulgar and aim solely at laughter, while those who neither joke nor appreciate humor are seen as boorish. The ideal is a tactful person who engages in humor appropriately, respecting social norms and context. This tactfulness is reflected in how well-bred individuals joke without causing offense. The extremes—buffoonery and boorishness—represent the excess and deficiency of humor, with the tactful person navigating between these extremes effectively.
Chapter 4-9 Shame is not a virtue but a feeling akin to fear, manifesting as a response to dishonor. It primarily affects the young, who are more prone to errors and thus benefit from the restraining influence of shame. Older individuals, however, should ideally avoid actions that would cause shame. Since disgrace arises from bad actions, which should be avoided, shame itself does not reflect well on one's character. It is more a response to perceived dishonor than a stable state of virtue, thus not fitting the description of a true virtue.

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Chapter 1 Liberality involves wise wealth management; prodigality and meanness show flaws. Prodigality is excessive spending, while meanness is reluctance to give.
Chapter 2 Magnificence involves grand expenditures, exceeding liberality in scale and fittingness. It focuses on honor, avoiding vulgarity and showy spending.
Chapter 3 The magnificent person spends grandly and tastefully, focusing on honor. Magnificence involves appropriate, enduring expenditures, requiring substantial means and standing.
Chapter 4 - 4 Honor can be desired excessively, moderately, or minimally; moderation is praised.
Chapter 4 - 5 Good temper balances anger; excess or deficiency in anger is blameworthy.
Chapter 4 - 6 Social behavior should balance giving pleasure and avoiding pain.
Chapter 4 - 7 Truthfulness lies between boastfulness and false modesty; extremes are blameworthy.
Chapter 4 - 8 Humor should be tasteful; extremes in joking are undesirable.
Chapter 4 - 9 Shame is not a virtue; it is a feeling of dishonor.

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Chapter 1 To understand justice and injustice, we examine their actions, means, and extremes. Justice involves a state of character that leads people to act justly and desire what is just. Injustice leads to unjust actions and desires. Recognizing one contrary often involves recognizing its opposite. Law-abiding individuals are just, while the lawless are unjust.
Chapter 2 Justice is part of virtue and involves specific forms of injustice related to gain and unfairness. Seeking profit at the expense of others is unjust, whereas actions driven by appetite or fear might be seen as self-indulgent or cowardly rather than unjust. Justice encompasses various types, including those concerning honor, money, or safety.
Chapter 3 Justice is intermediate and equal, involving two persons and two things. Proportional justice maintains a ratio between these terms, ensuring fair distribution of goods based on merit or need. Unjust actions disrupt this proportion, leading to unequal distributions.
Chapter 4 Rectificatory justice addresses correcting inequalities in transactions by equalizing gains and losses. Unlike distributive justice, which is proportional, rectificatory justice involves compensating the injured party and penalizing the wrongdoer. Judges act as intermediaries to restore balance.
Chapter 5 - 5 Acting unjustly doesn't always mean being unjust. A thief or adulterer may act unjustly due to passion rather than deliberate choice. Political justice is relevant for those seeking self-sufficiency and equality, contrasting with special or analogical justice.
Chapter 5 - 6 Political justice consists of natural and legal parts. Natural justice is universal and constant, while legal justice is specific to laws and conventions. Justice can vary by human enactment, with some being universally just and others legally defined.
Chapter 5 - 7 Acts of justice or injustice depend on voluntariness. Voluntary acts are done knowingly and with intention, while involuntary acts occur due to ignorance or compulsion. True justice or injustice is reflected in voluntary acts done with deliberation.
Chapter 5 - 8 The paradox of willingly suffering injustice raises questions about voluntariness. While suffering injustice seems involuntary, one might experience it willingly if they act contrary to their wishes. Self-treatment with injustice involves complexity, as unjust treatment and self-injustice are distinct considerations.
Chapter 5 - 9 Equity and the equitable relate to justice but aren't identical. Equity addresses fairness beyond rigid legal standards, considering specific circumstances and intentions to achieve a just outcome, unlike strict adherence to laws.
Chapter 5 - 10 The complexity of whether one can treat oneself unjustly involves legal and moral considerations. Acts like suicide, forbidden by law, are seen as unjust towards the state rather than oneself. Unjust actions involve multiple people and voluntary choice, making self-harm not categorized as unjust in this sense.

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5 - 1 Justice involves a character that desires and acts justly. Injustice does not. Justice is lawful and fair; injustice is unlawful and unfair.
5 - 2 There is a particular justice, distinct from virtue entirely. Injustice can be specific or general, reflecting different forms of wrongdoing.
5 - 3 Justice is proportional, an intermediate between extremes. It involves equality and fairness in distribution.
5 - 4 Rectificatory justice equalizes transactions' outcomes, balancing gain and loss through corrective measures.
5 - 6 Unjust acts don’t necessarily indicate an unjust person; motivations differ.
5 - 7 Political justice involves laws, differing from natural justice, which is universal.
5 - 8 Voluntary actions determine justice; involuntary acts are only incidental.
5 - 9 Suffering injustice may be involuntary; acting unjustly is always voluntary.
5 - 10 Equity and equity differ from justice; both involve nuanced evaluation.
5 - 11 A man cannot treat himself unjustly; unjust acts require others.

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Chapter 6 - 1: To find the intermediate state in character, follow the right rule to balance excess and defect. Understanding and applying the right rule is essential for practical moral guidance.
Chapter 6 - 2: Moral virtue involves choice, combining desire and reason. Choice is the origin of action and involves deliberation, distinguishing it from mere reaction or past events.
Chapter 6 - 3: Scientific knowledge involves understanding necessary and unchangeable truths through demonstration from first principles. It provides a comprehensive grasp of essential truths.
Chapter 6 - 4: Art involves creating something variable, focusing on making rather than acting. It requires reasoned capacity to create and is distinct from actions driven by necessity.
Chapter 6 - 5: Practical wisdom involves evaluating what contributes to the good life generally, focusing on good actions rather than specific ends. It differs from scientific knowledge and art.
Chapter 6 - 6: Scientific knowledge is about universal truths from first principles, while intuitive reason grasps these foundational principles. They complement each other in understanding truths.
Chapter 6 - 7: Wisdom combines intuitive reason with scientific knowledge. Philosophic wisdom seeks universal truths, while practical wisdom focuses on human goods and actions.
Chapter 6 - 8: Political and practical wisdom differ in scope. Political wisdom addresses societal laws, while practical wisdom deals with individual and collective good. Youth may lack practical wisdom due to limited experience.
Chapter 6 - 9: Deliberation involves specific consideration for practical success, aiming at the right means and ends. It is distinct from mere conjecture or opinion, requiring correct reasoning.
Chapter 6 - 10: Understanding involves judgment and evaluation, connecting with practical wisdom. It assesses the validity of opinions and aligns with practical wisdom in judging what should be done.
Chapter 6 - 11: Judgment involves discerning what is equitable and correct. It converges with practical wisdom and understanding, supported by intuitive reason and experience for evaluating specifics and fundamentals.
Chapter 6 - 12: Practical wisdom guides moral actions and complements moral virtue, helping achieve noble goals. It does not directly produce happiness but aligns with virtue to guide right actions.
Chapter 6 - 13: Natural virtue differs from true virtue, akin to cleverness. Practical wisdom refines natural virtues into moral virtues, ensuring actions align with moral goodness. True virtue integrates practical wisdom.

Chapter 6 - 1: To determine the intermediate state in character, we must follow the right rule. This rule guides us to find the mean between excess and defect. However, knowing this isn’t enough; we need to identify the specific right rule and standard that determines this mean. Just as in medicine we need specific prescriptions, in moral virtues, we must understand what defines the intermediate state and how to apply it effectively. Without such knowledge, a person would lack the practical wisdom necessary for proper moral guidance.
Chapter 6 - 2: The virtue of something relates to its proper function. In the soul, sensation, reason, and desire control actions. Sensation alone does not initiate action. Moral virtue involves choice, which is a deliberate desire guided by correct reasoning. Practical intellect involves both correct reasoning and right desire. Choice, the origin of action, depends on both intellect and character. Since actions depend on future possibilities, choice involves deliberation and cannot concern the past. Thus, choice combines desire with reason, forming the basis of action.
Chapter 6 - 3: The soul possesses truth through art, scientific knowledge, practical wisdom, philosophic wisdom, and intuitive reason. Scientific knowledge is understanding what is necessary and unchangeable. It involves demonstration and follows from first principles, acquired through induction or syllogism. Thus, scientific knowledge is the ability to demonstrate truths from known principles. It’s a state of understanding where starting points are clear, leading to a comprehensive grasp of necessary truths.
Chapter 6 - 4: The capacity to act and to make are distinct. Architecture is an art, a reasoned capacity to create something variable, not necessarily present by nature. Art involves making, not acting, and is concerned with creating, not necessarily with actions driven by necessity. Art's focus is on creating something that might be otherwise, involving true reasoning. Lack of art indicates a false reasoning about making. Therefore, art is a reasoned state concerned with making, distinguishing it from actions.
Chapter 6 - 5: Practical wisdom involves deliberating about what is good for life, not just specific aspects like health or strength. It requires evaluating what contributes to the good life generally. Unlike scientific knowledge or art, practical wisdom involves true and reasoned action in variable contexts. Practical wisdom does not aim at a specific end but at good actions. It’s different from art and science, and involves the ability to make good decisions about human goods, rather than abstract principles.
Chapter 6 - 6: Scientific knowledge pertains to universal and necessary truths derived from first principles. These principles themselves cannot be scientifically known, as they are foundational. Intuitive reason, which grasps these first principles, differs from scientific knowledge and other forms of wisdom. Scientific knowledge involves demonstration, while intuitive reason is necessary for understanding foundational principles. Hence, intuitive reason grasps what is necessary and unchangeable, filling the gap left by other forms of knowledge.
Chapter 6 - 7: Wisdom combines intuitive reason with scientific knowledge of the highest objects. While art-specific wisdom applies to particular fields, general wisdom involves a broader understanding of fundamental truths. Philosophic wisdom, different from practical wisdom, seeks the highest truths and involves scientific knowledge and intuitive reason. Practical wisdom addresses human goods and deliberative actions, while philosophic wisdom pertains to universal and divine principles. This distinction highlights that wisdom in general includes comprehensive knowledge and understanding, beyond specific expertise.
Chapter 6 - 8: Political and practical wisdom are linked but differ in essence. Political wisdom involves action and deliberation, related to specific decrees, while practical wisdom pertains to individual knowledge. Practical wisdom encompasses household management, legislation, and politics, with a focus on individual and collective good. Political wisdom is broader, dealing with societal laws and action. Youth lack practical wisdom due to limited experience, though they may excel in abstract fields like mathematics. Practical wisdom differs from scientific knowledge, focusing on immediate particulars rather than abstract principles. Hence, practical wisdom requires experience and intuitive reasoning.
Chapter 6 - 9: Deliberation is distinct from inquiry; it involves specific consideration. Excellence in deliberation is not scientific knowledge, skill in conjecture, or mere opinion. It requires reasoning and correctness, aiming for practical success rather than abstract truth. Correct deliberation involves achieving the right end through proper means. Deliberation must address what is expedient and successful, whether generally or in specific contexts. Practical wisdom involves correct deliberation towards achieving good ends. Deliberation excellence involves both the means and the goal, distinguishing it from mere calculation or conjecture.
Chapter 6 - 10: Understanding differs from opinion and scientific knowledge. It concerns judgment and evaluation, not merely knowing or acquiring practical wisdom. Understanding involves exercising the faculty of opinion to assess and judge. It aligns with practical wisdom in judging what ought to be done. Practical wisdom commands actions, while understanding judges the validity of opinions. Understanding applies to practical wisdom by evaluating judgments about practical matters. Hence, understanding is about grasping scientific truths and evaluating judgments, connecting with practical wisdom through judgment and discernment.
Chapter 6 - 11: Judgment involves discerning what is equitable and correct. Sympathetic judgment correctly discriminates the equitable, and accurate judgment aligns with truth. Judgement, understanding, and practical wisdom converge on evaluating particulars and ultimates. These faculties deal with specific, variable facts. Intuitive reason supports judgments about both first principles and particulars, forming the basis for demonstrations and practical reasonings. Experience and intuitive reason guide judgment and practical wisdom. Therefore, natural endowments like judgment and understanding are crucial for practical wisdom, developed over time and experience.
Chapter 6 - 12: Practical wisdom's utility lies in guiding moral and noble actions. It aids in achieving good, though it doesn’t produce happiness directly. Practical wisdom complements moral virtue, guiding actions towards noble ends. Unlike arts like medicine, practical wisdom shapes the character to perform virtuous acts. Practical wisdom helps in achieving the good but doesn’t replace the need for virtue. It is integral to acting rightly and achieving noble goals, aligning with virtue and moral goodness.
Chapter 6 - 13: Natural virtue differs from virtue in the strict sense, akin to cleverness and practical wisdom. Natural dispositions are innate but need reason to become true virtue. Practical wisdom refines natural virtues into moral virtues, as seen in Socrates' views. Virtues in the strict sense require practical wisdom, which provides the right rule for virtuous actions. Practical wisdom ensures that actions align with moral virtues. Thus, true virtue integrates practical wisdom, confirming that moral virtue and practical wisdom are interdependent and complementary.

Chapter 6 - 1: Virtue is an intermediate state, determined by the right rule.
Chapter 6 - 2: Virtue involves aligning desire and reasoning with correct choice-making.
Chapter 6 - 3: Scientific knowledge involves demonstrating universal truths through induction and syllogism.
Chapter 6 - 4: Art involves creating variable things; not identical with making.
Chapter 6 - 5: Practical wisdom is a reasoned state of acting for human goods.
Chapter 6 - 6: Intuitive reason grasps first principles; not covered by other knowledge.
Chapter 6 - 7: Wisdom combines intuitive reason and scientific knowledge of highest objects.
Chapter 6 - 8: Political and Practical Wisdom
Chapter 6 - 9: Deliberation and Excellence
Chapter 6 - 10: Understanding and Practical Wisdom
Chapter 6 - 11: Judgment and Sympathetic Understanding
Chapter 6 - 12: Utility and Virtue
Chapter 6 - 13: Natural Virtue and Practical Wisdom