12th

China is under Northern Song Dynasty. Early in century, Zhang Zeduan paints Along River During Qingming Festival. It will later end up in Palace Museum, Beijing.

In southeast Asia, there is conflict between Khmer Empire & Champa. Angkor Wat is built under Hindu king Suryavarman II. By end of century Buddhist Jayavarman VII becomes ruler.

Japan is in its Heian Period. Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga is made & attributed to Toba Sojo. It will end up at Kozan-ji, Kyoto.

In Oceania, Tu'i Tonga Empire expands.

Europe undergoes Renaissance of 12th century. blast furnace for smelting of cast iron is imported from China, appearing around Lapphyttan, Sweden, as early as 1150, & Alexander Neckam is first European to document mariner's compass, first documented by Shen Kuo in previous century.

Christian humanism becomes a self-conscious philosophical tendency in Europe. Christianity is introduced to Estonia, Finland, & Karelia. first European universities are founded. Pierre Abelard teaches. Middle English begins to develop, & literacy begins to spread outside Church.[1] In addition, churchmen are increasingly willing to take on secular roles- by end of century, at least a third of England's bishops also act as royal judges in secular matters.[2] Ars antiqua period in history of Western European music begins. Durham Cathedral in England is completed & earliest recorded miracle play is performed in Dunstable, England. Gothic Architecture & trouvère music begin in France. In mid-12th century, Cappella Palatina is built in Palermo, Sicily & Madrid Skylitzes manuscript illustrates Synopsis of Histories by John Skylitzes. Fire & plague insurance first become available in Iceland, & first documented outbreaks of influenza occur. medieval Serbian state is formed by Stefan Nemanja & continued by Nemanjić dynasty. By end of century, both Capetian Dynasty & House of Anjou are relying primarily on mercenaries in their militaries. Paid soldiers are available year-round, unlike knights who expect certain periods off to maintain their manors.

In India, Hoysala architecture reaches a peak.

In Middle East, icon Theotokos of Vladimir is made, probably in Constantinople. Everything but faces will later be retouched, & icon will end up in Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow. Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli composes his epic poem Knight in Panther's Skin. Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi founds his "school of illumination".

In north Africa, kasbah of Marrakesh is built, including city gate Bab Agnaou & Koutoubia mosque.

In sub-Saharan Africa, Kente cloth is first woven.

Inventions, discoveries & introductions by year

List of 12th century inventions

1104 Venice Arsenal of Venice, Italy, is founded. It employed some 16000 people for mass production of sailing ships in large assembly lines, hundreds of years before Industrial Revolution.

1106- Finished building of Gelati.

1107—The Chinese engineer Wu Deren combines mechanical compass vehicle of South Pointing Chariot with distance-measuring odometer device.

1111 Chinese Donglin Academy is founded.

1165—The Liuhe Pagoda of Hangzhou, China, is built.

1185--First record of windmills.

Political events by year

1100: On August 5, Henry I is crowned King of England.

1100: On December 25, Baldwin of Boulogne is crowned as first King of Jerusalem in Church of Nativity in Bethlehem.

1101: In July, Treaty of Alton is signed between Henry I of England & his older brother Robert, Duke of Normandy in which Robert agrees to recognize Henry as king of England in exchange for a yearly stipend & other concessions. agreement temporarily ended a crisis in succession of Anglo-Norman kings.

1101–1103: David Builder takes over Kakheti & Hereti.

1102: King Coloman unites Hungary & Croatia under Hungarian Crown.

1103-1104: A church council is convened by King David Builder in Urbnisi to reorganize Georgian Orthodox Church.

1104: In Battle of Ertcukhi, King David Builder defeats an army of Seljuks.

1107–1111: Sigurd I of Norway becomes first king in Europe to embark on a crusade to Holy Land. He fought in Lisbon, on various Mediterranean isles, & helped King of Jerusalem to take Sidon from Muslims.

1108: By Treaty of Devol, signed in September, Bohemond I of Antioch has to submit to Byzantine Empire, becoming vassal of Alexius I.

1109: On June 10, Bertrand of Toulouse captures County of Tripoli.

1109: In Battle of Nakło, Boleslaus III Wrymouth defeats Pomeranians & re-establishes Polish access to sea.

1109: On August 24, in Battle of Hundsfeld, Boleslaus III Wrymouth defeats Emperor Henry V & stops German expansion eastward.

1111: On April 14, during Henry V's first expedition to Rome, he is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

1113: Paramavishnulok is crown as King Suryavarman II in Cambodia. He expanded Khmer Empire & built constructions of Angkor Wat during first half of century. He established diplomatic relations with China.

1115: Georgian army occupies Rustavi in war to free Georgia from Muslims.

1116: Byzantine army defeats Turks at Philomelion.

c. 1119: Foundation of Knights Templar.

1119: David Builder & Baldwin II of Jerusalem meet each other.

1120: On January 16, Council of Nablus, a council of ecclesiastic & secular lords in crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, establishes first written laws for kingdom.

1120: On November 25, William Adelin, only legitimate son of King Henry I of England, drowns in White Ship Disaster, leading to a succession crisis which would bring down Norman monarchy of England.

1121: On August 12, in Battle of Didgori, greatest military victory of Georgia, King David Builder with 40,000 Georgians, 15,000 Kipchak auxiliaries, 500 Alan mercenaries & 300 French Crusaders defeats a Seljuk-led Muslim coalition army of 400,000.

1121: On December 25, St. Norbert & 29 companions made their solemn vows, beginning of Premonstratensian Order.

1122: Battle of Beroia results in disappearance of Pechenegs as an independent force.

1122: On September 23, Concordat of Worms (Pactum Calixtinum) was drawn up between Emperor Henry V & Pope Calixtus IIbringing an end to first phase of power struggle between Papacy & Holy Roman Empire.

1122: After a four-hundred-year supremacy of Arabs, King David Builder captures Tbilisi & declares it capital city of Georgia.

1123: Jurchen dynasty forces Koryo to recognize their suzerainty.

1124: In April or May, David I is crowned King of Scots.

1125: On June 11, in Battle of Azaz, Crusader States, led by King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, defeat Seljuk Turks.

1125: Lothair of Supplinburg, duke of Saxony, is elected Holy Roman Emperor instead of nearest heir, Frederick of Swabia, beginning great struggle of Guelf & Ghibelline.

1127: Northern Song dynasty loses power over northern China to Jurchens of Manchuria.

1128: On June 24, Portugal gains independence from kingdom of León at Battle of São Mamede; (recognised by León in 1143).

1130–1180: Fifty-year drought in American Southwest.

1130–1138: Papal schism, Pope Innocent II vs. Antipope Anacletus II.

1130: On March 26, Sigurd I of Norway dies. A golden era of 95 years comes to an end for Norway as civil wars between members of Harald Fairhair's family line rage for remainder of century.

1130: On Christmas Day, Roger II is crowned King of Sicily, royal title being given to him by Antipope Anacletus II.

1132: Southern Song Dynasty establishes China's first permanent standing navy, although China had a long naval history prior. main admiral's office was stationed at port of Dinghai.

1132–1183: Chinese navy increases from a mere 3,000 marine soldiers to 52,000 marine soldiers stationed in 20 different squadrons. During this time, hundreds of treadmill-operated paddle wheel craft are assembled for navy, in order to combat Jurchen's Jin Dynasty in north.

1135–1154: Anarchy is a period of civil war in England.

1136: Suger begins rebuilding abbey church at St Denis north of Paris, which is regarded as first major Gothic building.

1137: On July 22, future King Louis VII of France marries Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine.

1138: On October 11, 1138 Aleppo earthquake devastates much of northern Syria.

1139: in April, Second Lateran Council ends papal schism.

1139: On July 5, in Treaty of Mignano Pope Innocent II confirms Roger II as King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia, & Prince of Capua & invests him with his titles.

1139: On July 26, Portuguese defeat Almoravids led by Ali ibn Yusuf in Battle of Ourique; Prince Afonso Henriques is acclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers.

1140–1150: Collapse of Ancestral Puebloan culture at Chaco Canyon

1141 - Treaty of Shaoxing ends conflicts between Jin Dynasty & Southern Song Dynasty, legally establishing boundaries of two countries & forcing Song Dynasty to renounce all claims to its former territories north of Huai River. treaty reduced Southern Song into a quasi-tributary state of Jurchen Jin Dynasty.

1143: Afonso Henriques is proclaimed King of Portugal by cortes.

1143 - Treaty of Zamora recognizes Portuguese independence from Kingdom of León & Castile. Portugal also recognizes suzerainty of pope.

1144: On December 24, Edessa falls to Atabeg Zengi.

1145–1148: Second Crusade is launched in response to fall of County of Edessa.

1147: On October 25, four-month long Siege of Lisbon successfully brings city under definitive Portuguese control, expelling Moorish overlords.

1147: A new Berber dynasty, Almohads, led by Emir Abd al-Mu'min, takes North Africa from Almoravides & soon invades Iberian Peninsula. Almohads began as a religious movement to rid Islam of impurities.

1147: Wendish Crusade against Polabian Slavs (or "Wends") in what is now northern & eastern Germany.

1150: Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona marries Petronilla, Queen of Aragon.

1151 - Treaty of Tudilén (or Treaty of Tudején) is signed by Alfonso VII of León & Raymond Berengar IV, Count of Barcelona, recognising Aragonese conquests south of Júcar & right to expand in & annex Kingdom of Murcia.

1153 - Treaty of Wallingford (Treaty of Winchester, Treaty of Westminster), effectively ends civil war caused by a dispute between Empress Matilda & her cousin King Stephen of England over English crown, in which Stephen recognises Matilda's son Henry of Anjou as his heir.

1153 - First Treaty of Constance is signed between Emperor Frederick I & Pope Eugene III, by terms of which, Emperor is to prevent any action by Manuel I Comnenus to reestablish Byzantine Empire on Italian soil & to assist pope against his enemies in revolt in Rome.

1154: Moroccan-born Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi publishes his Geography.

1154: On December 19, Henry II is crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey.

1155: Pope Adrian IV grants overlordship of Ireland to Henry II of England in bull Laudabiliter.

1156 – On June 18, Treaty of Benevento is entered into by Pope Adrian IV & Norman Kingdom of Sicily. After years of turbulent relations, popes finally settled down to a peace with Hauteville kings. kingship of William I is recognised over all Sicily, Apulia, Calabria, & Campania, as well as Capua. tribute to pope of 600 schifati agreed upon by Roger II in 1139 at Mignano was affirmed & another 400 schifati was added for new lands.

1158 - Treaty of Sahagún ends a state of war between Castile & León.

1161: Song Dynasty Chinese navy, employing gunpowder bombs launched from trebuchets, defeats enormous Jin Dynasty navy in East China Sea in Battle of Tangdao & on Yangtze River in Battle of Caishi.

1161: Kilij Arslan II, Sultan of Rum, makes peace with Byzantine Empire, recognizing emperor's primacy.

1161: In siege of Ani, Georgian troops take over control of city, only to have it sold for second time to Shaddadids, a Kurdish dynasty.

1162: Genghis Khan, founder of Mongol Empire, is born as Temüjin.

1163: Norwegian Law of Succession takes effect.

1168: King Valdemar I of Denmark conquers Arkona on Island of Rügen, strongest pagan fortress & temple in Northern Europe.

1169: On May 1, Norman invasion of Ireland begins. Richard fitzGilbert de Clare ('Strongbow') makes an alliance with exiled Irish chief, Dermot MacMurrough, to help him recover his kingdom of Leinster.

1170 - Treaty of Sahagún is signed by Alfonso VIII of Castile & Afonso I of Portugal. Based on terms of accord, Alfonso VIII agrees to give Afonso I three hostages in order to be used as tribute payments owed by Ibn Mardanīš of Valencia & Murcia.

1170: On December 29, Thomas Becket is murdered.

1171: Saladin deposes last Fatimid Caliph Al-'Āḍid, initiating Ayyubid dynasty.

1171: On November 11, Henry II of England lands in Ireland to assert his claim as Lord of Ireland.

1174: On July 12, William I of Scotland is captured by English in Battle of Alnwick. He accepts feudal lordship of English crown & does ceremonial allegiance at York.

1175: Hōnen Shōnin (Genkū) founds Jōdo shū (Pure Land) sect of Buddhism.

1175 - Treaty of Windsor is signed by King Henry II of England & High King of Ireland, Rory O'Connor.

1176: On September 17, Battle of Myriokephalon (Myriocephalum; Turkish: Miryakefalon Savaşı) is fought between Byzantine Empire & Seljuk Turks in Phrygia. It was a serious reversal for Byzantine forces & was to be final, unsuccessful, effort by Byzantines to recover interior of Anatolia from Seljuk Turks.

1177 - Treaty or Peace of Venice is signed by Papacy & its allies & Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Norman Kingdom of Sicily also takes part in negotiations & treaty thereby determines political course of all Italy for next several years.

1178: Chinese writer Zhou Qufei, a Guangzhou customs officer, writes of an island far west in Indian Ocean (possibly Madagascar), from where people with skin "as black as lacquer" & with frizzy hair were captured & purchased as slaves by Arab merchants.

1179 - Treaty of Cazola (Cazorla) is signed by Alfonso II of Aragon & Alfonso VIII of Castile, dividing Andalusia into separate zones of conquest for two kingdoms, so that work of Reconquista would not be stymied by internecine feuding.

1180–1185: Genpei War in Japan.

1182: revolt of people of Constantinople against Latins, whom they massacre, proclaiming Andronicus I Comnenus co-emperor.

1183: On January 25, final Peace of Constance between Frederick Barbarossa, pope, & Lombard towns is signed, confirming Peace of Venice of 1177.

1183: On September 24, Andronicus I Comnenus has his nephew Alexius II Comnenus strangled.

1184: On March 24, Queen Tamar, King of Georgia, accedes to throne as sole ruler after reigning with her father, George III, for six years.

1185: Andronicus I Comnenus is deposed and, on September 12, executed as a result of Norman massacre of Greeks of Thessalonika.

1185: cathedral school (Katedralskolan) in Lund, Sweden, is founded. school is oldest in northern Europe, & one of oldest in Europe.

1185: Beginning in this year Kamakura Shogunate deprives Emperor of Japan of political power.

1186: On January 27, future Emperor Henry VI marries Constance of Sicily, heiress to Sicilian throne.

1187: On July 4, in Battle of Hattin, Saladin defeats King of Jerusalem.

1187: In August, Swedish royal & commercial center Sigtuna is attacked by Baltic-Finnish raiders from Couronia & Estonia.

1189: On September 3, Richard is crowned King of England in Westminster.

1189–1192: Third Crusade is an attempt by European leaders to reconquer Holy Land from Saladin.

1191: On September 7, Saladin is defeated by Richard I of England at Battle of Arsuf.

1192: In April, Conrad of Montferrat is elected King of Jerusalem as Conrad I, then assassinated a few days later (April 28), before coronation, by two Hashshashin.

1192: In Battle of Jaffa, King Richard Lionheart defeats Saladin.

1192 – In June, Treaty of Ramla is signed by Saladin & Richard Lionheart. Under terms of agreement, Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control. However, city would be open to Christian pilgrimages. Latin Kingdom is reduced to a geopolitical coastal strip that extended from Tyre to Jaffa.

1192: Minamoto Yoritomo is appointed Sei-i Taishōgun, "barbarian-subduing great general, shōgun for short, first military dictator to bear this title.

1193: Nalanda, great Indian Buddhist educational centre, is destroyed.

1193: Prithvi raj Chauhan, First Muslim Empire Established in India by mohommad Ghori by defeating Prithviraj chauhan

1193: first known merchant guild.

1195: On June 16, struggle of Shamqori. Georgian forces annihilate army of Abu Baqar.

1198: brethren of Crusader hospital in Acre are raised to a military order of knights, Teutonic Knights, formally known as Order of Knights of Hospital of St. Mary of Teutons in Jerusalem.

1199: Pope Innocent III writes to Kaloyan, inviting him to unite Bulgarian Church with Roman Catholic Church.

c. 1200: Toltec Empire collapses.

[edit] Significant people

Aelred, Saint, English monk & spiritual writer

Afonso I Henriques, first king of Portugal

Alan IV, Duke of Brittany

Albert of Jerusalem, Saint, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem

Albert of Louvain, Saint, Bishop of Liège

Amadeus of Lausanne, Blessed, Bishop of Lausanne

Andrei I Bogolyubsky, Prince of Suzdal

Andronicus I Comnenus, emperor

Anselm, Saint, Abbot of Bec & Archbishop of Canterbury

Anthelm, Saint, Abbot of Grand Chartreuse

Artemis Felicaan, Mysticist & Mathmematician found guilty of treason during Christian Prosecution in Constantinople.

Arthur I, Duke of Brittany

Averroes Ibn Rushd, Spanish Islamic polymath

Bernard, Saint, Abbot of Clairvaux, preacher & reformer

Bertha, Duchess of Brittany

Berthold, Saint, found of Carmelite Order

Bhaskara II, Indian mathematician & astronomer

Bohemund I of Antioch, prince

Boleslaus III Wrymouth, king of Poland

Boleslav IV Curly, high duke of Poland

Bruno of Segni, Saint, bishop

Chakhrukhadze, Georgian poet

Christina of Markyate, Prioress of St. Albans Abbey

Coloman I, King of Hungary

Conan IV, Duke of Brittany, Younger

Conrad I of Montferrat, King elect of Jerusalem

Constance, Duchess of Brittany

David Soslani, husband of Queen Tamar

Dominic de Guzmán, Saint, founder of Order of Preachers

Edmund of Abingdon, Saint, theologian, Archbishop of Canterbury

Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen consort of France & later of Kingdom of England

Engelbert II of Berg, Saint, Archbishop of Cologne

Erik Gnupsson, Bishop of Greenland

Eugene III, Blessed, pope

Eustathios of Thessalonike, Saint, archbishop of Thessaloniki & writer

Eysteinn Erlendsson, Saint, Bishop of Nidaros

Felix of Valois, Saint, co-founder of Order of Holy Trinity for Redemption of Captives

Francis of Assisi, Saint, founder of Order of Friars Minor

Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor

Galdino della Sala, Saint, Archbishop of Milan

Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

Geoffrey V, Count of Anjouand Duke of Normandy

Gilbert of Sempringham, Saint, founder of Gilbertines.

Giorgi Mtcignobartuxuces-Tchkondideli, Georgian political & ecclesiastical figure

Henry (Bishop of Uppsala), Saint

Henry, Count of Portugal

Hildegard of Bingen, Saint, polymath & first Western musical composer known by name

Hōnen Shōnin (Genkū), religious founder

Hugh II, Duke of Burgundy

Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy

Hugh of Grenoble, Saint, bishop

Hugh of Lincoln, Saint, bishop

Huizong, Emperor of China

Humbert III, Count of Savoy, Blessed

Ida of Boulogne, Saint, countess

Ivo of Chartres, Saint, bishop

John of Matha, Saint, co-founder of Order of Holy Trinity for Redemption of Captives

Lawrence O'Toole, Saint, Archbishop of Dublin

Leopold III, Margrave of Austria, Saint

Lin Tinggui, Chinese painter of Buddhist themes

Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney, Saint

Maimonides, Jewish philosopher

Malachy O'More, Saint, Archbishop of Armagh

Matilda of Tuscany, countess

Mechtildis, Saint, abbess

Minamoto no Yoritomo, shōgun of Japan, founder of Kamakura Shogunate

Muhammad of Ghor, Afghan ruler

Nerses of Lambron, Saint, Archbishop of Tarsus, theologian

Norbert of Xanten, Saint, founder of Premonstratensian Order of canons regular, Archbishop of Magdeburg

Odo I, Duke of Burgundy

Odo II, Duke of Burgundy

Odo III, Duke of Burgundy

Odo of Cambrai, Saint, bishop, theologian

Olegarius, Saint, Archbishop of Tarragona

Omar Khayyám, Persian poet & astronomer

Opizars, Beshqen & Beqa, celebrated Georgian gold-smiths.

Otto of Bamberg, Saint, bishop, chancellor of Holy Roman Empire

Paschal II, pope

Peter Abelard, philosopher

Peter Nolasco, Saint, co-founder of Order of Our Lady of Ransom

Peter, Bishop of Poitiers, Saint

Peter IV of Bulgaria, king

Raymond of Fitero, Saint, founder of Order of Calatrava

Raymond of Peñafort, Saint, canon lawyer

Richard I of England, king & Duke of Normandy

Richard of Chichester, Saint, bishop

Richard of St. Victor, theologian

Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy

Robert de Bethune, Bishop of Hereford

Sava, Saint, organizer & liberator of Serbian Orthodox Church

Shao Yong, Chinese poet, historian, & philosopher

Stephen Harding, Saint, abbot, co-founder of Cistercian Order

Stephen of England, king & Duke of Normandy

Suger, Abbot of St.-Denis

Tamar of Georgia, queen

Thomas Becket, Saint, Archbishop of Canterbury & Chancellor of England

William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, knight & statesman

William of Malmesbury, English historian

Yue Fei, Chinese general

Yusuf ibn Tashfin, Almoravid ruler of North Africa & Spain

Zhang Zeduan, Chinese painter

Zhou Jichang, Chinese painter

Zhu Xi, Neo-Confucian Chinese philosopher

Zhu Yu, Chinese maritime author

13th

Europe

1204—Fourth Crusade of 1202–1204 captures Zara for Venice & sacks Byzantine Constantinople, creating Latin Empire.

1204—Fall of Normandy from Angevin hands to French King, Philip Augustus, end of Norman domination of France.

1205—The Battle of Adrianople occurred on April 14, 1205 between Bulgarians under Tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria, & Crusaders under Baldwin I, (July 1172–1205), first emperor of Latin Empire of Constantinople.

1212—The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in Iberia sees beginning of a rapid Christian reconquest of southern half of Iberian peninsula, mainly from 1230–1248, with defeat of Moorish forces.

1213—France defeats Spanish Kingdom of Aragon at Battle of Muret.

1214—France defeats English & Imperial German forces at Battle of Bouvines.

1215—King John of England signs Magna Carta at Runnymede.

1217–1221—Fifth Crusade captures Egyptian Ayyubid port city of Damietta, ultimately Crusaders withdraw.

1221—Venice signs a trade treaty with Mongol Empire.

1222—Andrew II of Hungary signs Golden Bull which affirms privileges of Hungarian nobility.

1223—The Mongol Empire defeats various Russian principalities at Battle of Kalka River.

1228-1229—Sixth Crusade under excommunicated Frederick II Hohenstaufen, who returns Jerusalem to Crusader States.

1228-1230- First clash between Gregory IX & Frederick II.

1226-1250- Dispute between so called second Lombard League & Frederick II.

1239–1250—Third conflict between Holy Roman Empire–Papacy.

1237–1240—Mongol Empire conquers Russia.

1241—Mongol Empire defeats Hungary at Battle of Mohi & defeats Poland at Battle of Legnica. Hungary & Poland ravaged.

1242—Russians defeat Teutonic Knights at Battle of Lake Peipus.

1243–1250—Second Holy Roman Empire–Papacy War.

1244—Ayyubids & Khwarezmians defeat Crusaders & their Arab allies at Battle of La Forbie.

1249—End of Portuguese Reconquista against Moors, when King Afonso III of Portugal reconquers Algarve.

1248–1254—Seventh Crusade captures Egyptian Ayyubid port city of Damietta, Crusaders ultimately withdraw. Mamelukes overthrow Ayyubid Dynasty.

1261—Byzantines under Michael VIII retake Constantinople from Crusaders & Venice.

1268—Fall of Crusader State of Antioch to Mamelukes.

1271—Edward I of England & Charles of Anjou arrive in Acre, starting Ninth Crusade against Baibars.

1282—Aragon acquires Sicily, after Sicilian Vespers.

1284—Peterhouse, Cambridge founded by Hugo de Balsham, Bishop of Ely.

1285—Second Mongol raid against Hungary, led by Nogai Khan.

1289—Crusader State of Tripoli falls to Mamelukes.

1291—The Swiss Confederation of Uri, Schwyz, & Unterwalden forms.

1291—Mamluk Sultan of Egypt al-Ashraf Khalil captures Acre, thus ending Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (the final Christian landholding remaining from Crusades).

[edit] Significant people

Genghis Khan, founder of Mongol Empire

Batu Khan, Mongol ruler & founder of Golden Horde

Haakon Haakonsson, king of Norway from 1217 to 1263. After long civil war Norway would again prosper under his rule & come to dominate Scandinavian politics.

Kaloyan, Emperor of Bulgaria

Ivan Asen II, Emperor of Bulgaria

Edward I of England, English King

Ottokar II of Bohemia, King of Bohemia

Baibars, Mameluk sultan of Egypt

Ibn Taymiyyah, famous Hanbali, Salafi Scholar of Islam

Dante Alighieri, Italian writer

William Marshal, knight & statesman.

Saint Thomas Aquinas, theologian

Andrea of Grosseto, Italian writer

Giotto di Bondone, Italian painter

Cimabue, Florentine painter

Sundiata Keita semi-historical founder of Mali Empire

Alexander of Hales, philosopher & theologian

Albertus Magnus, German philosopher & theologian

Francis of Assisi, founder of Franciscan order

Robert Grosseteste, English statesman, theologian, & scientist

Roger Bacon, Franciscan, philosopher, & scientist

Birger jarl, Swedish statesman, earl, & founder of Stockholm

Bonaventure, Franciscan theologian

Petrus Peregrinus, scientist

Louis IX of France, St. Louis, French king & crusader

Marco Polo, Venetian trader & explorer

Frederick II, emperor of Holy Roman Empire

Ramon Llull, Majorcan philosopher

Kublai Khan, Khan ruler, founder of Yuan Dynasty in China

Alexander Nevsky, Grand Prince of Novgorod & Vladimir

Saadi Persian poet

Snorri Sturluson, historian & saga-writer

William Wallace, Scottish national leader

Béla IV of Hungary rebuilder of Hungary after devastating Mongol invasion

Lembitu, Estonian ruler

Queen Tamara, ruler of Georgia

Lasha Giorgi, King Giorgi IV of Georgia

Queen Rusudan, Queen Regnant of Georgia

Mevlana, great philosopher & poet

[edit] Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 13th century inventions

Early 13th century - Xia Gui paints Twelve Views from a Thatched Hut. Southern Song dynasty. It is now kept at Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri.

The motet form originates out of Ars antiqua tradition of Western European music.

Manuscript culture develops out of this time period in cities in Europe, which denotes a shift from monasteries to cities for books.

Pecia system of copying books develops in Italian university-towns & was taken up by University of Paris in middle of century.

Wooden movable type printing invented by Chinese governmental minister Wang Zhen in 1298.

The earliest known rockets, landmines, & handguns are made by Chinese for use in warfare.

The Chinese adopt windmill from Islamic world.

Guan ware vase is made. Southern Song dynasty. It is now kept at Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, London.

1280s Eyeglasses invented in Italy.

Late 13th century - "Night Attack on Sanjo Palace" is made. Kamakura period. It is now kept at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Late 13th century - Descent of Amida Trinity, raigo triptych, is made. Kamakura period. It is now kept at Art Institute of Chicago.

14th

The transition from Medieval Warm Period to Little Ice Age.

Beginning of Ottoman Empire, early expansion into Balkans.

Early 14th century - Attributed to Kao Ninga Monk Sewing is made. Kamakura period. It is now kept at Cleveland Museum of Art.

The Avignon papacy transfers seat of Popes from Italy to France

The Great Famine of 1315-1317 kills millions of people in Europe

Forced out of previous locations, Mexica found city of Tenochtitlan in 1325

The death of Ilkhan Abu Said in 1335, causing disintegration of Mongol rule in Persia.

Battle of Kosovo in 1389 between Serbs & Ottoman Turks, Prince Lazar, sultan Murat I & Miloš Obilić were killed

The Vijayanagara Empire is founded in South India by Harihara in 1336

The Hundred Years' War begins when Edward III of England lays claim to French throne in 1337.

Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars begin

French recruit troops & ships in Genoa, Monaco & Nice. (1345–1346)

Black Death kills around a third of population of Europe. (1347–1351).

Mid-14th century – Bottle, from Syria, is made. It is now kept at Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

The Battle of Lake Poyang, a naval conflict between Chinese rebel groups led by Chen Youliang & Zhu Yuanzhang, took place in August to October of 1363, & was one of largest naval battles in history.

The end of Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China & beginning of Ming Dynasty (1368)

The Lollardy movement rises in England

The Great Schism of West begins in 1378, eventually leading to 3 simultaneous popes.

An account of Buddha's life, translated earlier into Greek by St John of Damascus & widely circulated to Christians as story of Barlaam & Josaphat, became so popular Buddha (under name Josaphat) was made a Catholic saint.[citation needed]

Singapore emerges for first time as a fortified city & trading centre of some importance.

Reunification of Poland under Ladislaus I of Poland

Ciompi Revolt in Florence

Peasants' Revolt in England

Islam reaches Terengganu, on Malay Peninsula.

The Hausa found several city-states in south of modern Niger.

The Mali Empire expands westward & conquers Tekrur.

The poet Petrarch coins term Dark Ages to describe preceding 900 years in Europe, beginning with fall of Western Roman Empire in 476 through to renewal embodied in Renaissance.

The Scots win Scottish Wars of Independence.

Union of Krewo between Poland & Lithuania.(1385)

Work begins on Great Enclosure at Great Zimbabwe, built of un-cemented, dressed stone. city's population is now between 10,000 & 40,000.

Beginning of Renaissance in Italy

The Kalmar Union is established in 1397, uniting Norway, Sweden & Denmark into one kingdom.

Foundation of Tenochtitlan, Aztec capital city, in valley of Mexico.

Iwan vault, Jamé Mosque of Isfahan, Isfahan, Persia (Iran), is built.

[edit] Significant people

Louis Great of Hungary (king: 1342–1382) King of Hungary, Croatia, Dalmatia, Jerusalem, Sicily & Poland from 1370. He led campaigns From Lithuania to Southern Italy, From Poland to Northern Greece. He had greatest military potential of century with his enormous armies.(Often over 100,000 men)

Osman I (1258–1326, Osman Gazi or Osman Bey or I.Osman or Osman Sayed II) leader of Ottoman Turks, founder of dynasty that established & ruled Ottoman Empire.*

Giotto di Bondone, Italian painter of late Middle Ages, early Renaissance (c. 1267–1337)

Simone Martini, Italian painter of late Middle Ages, early Renaissance 1284 – c. 1344

Edward II (1284–1327?) of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed in January 1327.

Charles IV, King of Bohemia, one of most powerful men in Europe.

Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, victor in First War of Scottish Independence against invasion by Kingdom of England (1274–1329).

David II of Scotland (1324–1371) King of Scots, son of King Robert Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife.[1]

Joan of Tower aka Joan of England (1321–1362), was first wife & Queen consort of David II of Scotland. She was born at Tower of London & was youngest daughter of Edward II of England & Isabella of France.

Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, Spanish author (1282–1349).

William of Ockham, English Franciscan friar & philosopher (c. 1285–1347).

Charles V (1338–1380), called Wise, was King of France from 1364 to his death & a member of House of Valois.

Charles I of Hungary, military, diplomatic & financial reformer, restoring Kingdom of Hungary to power (1288–1342).

Chen Youliang, Chinese rebel leader & arch nemesis to Zhu Yuanzhang (aka Emperor Hongwu)

Isabella of France, queen consort & regent of Kingdom of England (c. 1295–1358).

Roger de Mortimer, 1st Earl of March (1287–1330), an English nobleman, was for three years de facto ruler of England, after leading a successful rebellion against Edward II.

Richard II (1367–1400) was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399.

Ibn Battuta, Berber Muslim traveler (1304–1368/1377).

Jiao Yu, Chinese general & author of Huolongjing military treatise

Liu Ji, a Chinese general, court advisor, philosopher, & co-editor of Huolongjing

Casimir III of Poland, expansionist & financial reformer (1310–1370).

Edward III, King of England. His claim to throne of France resulted in Hundred Years' War (1312–1377).

Edward, Black Prince or Edward of Woodstock, Prince of Wales, KG (1330–1376), was eldest son of King Edward III of England & Philippa of Hainault, & father to King Richard II of England.

Timur, Central Asian warlord & founder of Timurid Dynasty (1336–1405).

Mansa Musa (d. 1347), King of Mali Empire while it was source of almost half world's gold.

Hongwu Emperor, founder of Ming Dynasty in China (1328–1398)

[edit] Literature

Dante Alighieri, Italian poet & writer (1265–1321).

Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian author (1313–1375).

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400?) was an English author, poet, philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier & diplomat.

Hafez Persian poet (c. 1310–1379).

William Langland (ca. 1332 – ca. 1386) is conjectured author of English dream-vision Piers Plowman.

Guillaume de Machaut, French composer & poet (c. 1300–1377).

Francesco Petrarch, Italian poet & writer (1304–1374).

Christine de Pizan, French writer (1364–1430).

[edit] Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 14th century inventions

First real handgun in world invented in Florence 11 Feb 1326.[2]

Music of Ars nova

The technique of knitting

Foundation of University of Cracow

Chinese text Huolongjing by Jiao Yu describes fire lances, fire arrows (rockets), rocket launchers, land mines, naval mines, bombards, cannons, & hollow cast iron cannonballs filled with gunpowder, & their use to set ablaze enemy camps.

15th

1401: Dilawar Khan establishes Malwa Sultanate in present-day central India

1402: Ottoman & Timurid Empires fight at Battle of Ankara resulting in Timur's capture of Bayezid I.

1402: Sultanate of Malacca founded by Parameshwara.

1403: Yongle Emperor moves capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing.

1403: settlement of Canary Islands signals beginning of Spanish Empire.

1405–1433: Zheng He of China sails through Indian Ocean to India, Arabia, & East Africa.

1410: Battle of Grunwald was decisive battle of Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War leading to downfall of Teutonic Knights.

1410–1413: Foundation of St Andrews University in Scotland

1414: Khizr Khan, deputised by Timur to be governor of Multan takes over Delhi founding Sayyid dynasty

1415: Henry Navigator leads conquest of Ceuta from Moors marking beginning of Portuguese Empire.

1415: Battle of Agincourt fought between Kingdom of England & France

1415: Jan Hus is burned at stake as a heretic at Council of Constance.

1420: Construction of Chinese Forbidden City is completed in Beijing.

1420–1434: Hussite Wars in Bohemia363

1424: James I returns to Scotland after being held hostage under three Kings of England since 1406

1424: Deva Raya II succeeds his father Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya as monarch of Vijayanagara Empire

1425: Catholic University of Leuven (Belgium) founded by Pope Martin V.

1429: Joan of Arc ends Siege of Orléans & turns tide of Hundred Years' War.

1438: Pachacuti founds Inca Empire.

1440: Eton College founded by Henry VI.

1440s: Golden Horde breaks up into Siberia Khanate, Khanate of Kazan, Astrakhan Khanate, Crimean Khanate, & Great Horde.

1440–1469: Under Moctezuma I, Aztecs become dominant power in Mesoamerica.

1441: Jan van Eyck, Flemish painter dies

1441: Portuguese navigators cruise West Africa & reestablish European slave trade with a shipment of African slaves sent directly from Africa to Portugal.

1443: Abdur Razzaq visits India

1444: Albanian league is established in Lezha, Skanderbeg is elected leader. A war begins against Ottoman empire. An Albanian state is set up & lasts until 1479.

1444: Ottoman Empire under Sultan Murad II defeats Polish & Hungarian armies under Władysław III of Poland & János Hunyadi at Battle of Varna.

1445: Kazan Khanate defeats Grand Duchy of Moscow at Battle of Suzdal

1446: King Sejong Great published a hangul, native phonetic alphabet system for Korean language.

1446: Mallikarjuna Raya succeeds his father Deva Raya II as monarch of Vijayanagara Empire

1449: Esen Tayisi leads an Oirat Mongol invasion of China which culminate in capture of Zhengtong Emperor at Battle of Tumu Fortress.

1451: Bahlul Khan Lodhi ascends throne of Delhi sultanate starting Lodhi dynasty

1453: Fall of Constantinople marks end of Byzantine Empire & beginning of Growth of Ottoman Empire.

1453: Battle of Castillon is last engagement of Hundred Years' War & first battle in European history where cannons were a major factor in deciding battle.

1454–1466: After defeating Teutonic Knights in Thirteen Years' War, Poland annexes Royal Prussia.

1455–1485: Wars of Roses – English civil war between House of York & House of Lancaster.

1456: Siege of Belgrade halts Ottoman's advance into Europe.

1462: Sonni Ali Ber, ruler of Songhai (or Songhay) Empire, along Niger River, conquered Mali in central Sudan by defeating Tuareg contingent at Tombouctou (or Timbuktu) & capturing city. He developed both his own capital, Gao, & main centres of Mali, Timbuktu & Djenné, into major cities. Ali Ber controlled trade along Niger River with a navy of war vessels.

1462: Mehmed Conqueror is driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula at Night Attack.

1467: Uzun Hasan defeats Black Sheep Turkoman leader Jahān Shāh.

1467–1615: Sengoku period is one of civil war in Japan.

1469: marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon & Isabella I of Castile leads to unification of Spain.

1469: Matthias Corvinus of Hungary conquered some parts of Bohemia.

1469: Birth of Guru Nanak Dev. Beside followers of Sikhism, Guru Nanak is revered by Hindus & Muslim Sufis across Indian subcontinent.

1470: Moldavian forces under Stephen Great defeat Tatars of Golden Horde at Battle of Lipnic.

1471: kingdom of Champa suffers a massive defeat by Vietnamese king Lê Thánh Tông.

1474–1477: Burgundy Wars of France, Switzerland, Lorraine & Sigismund II of Habsburg against Charles Bold, Duke of Burgundy.

1478: Muscovy conquers Novgorod.

1479: Battle of Breadfield, Matthias Corvinus of Hungary defeated Turks.

1480: After Great standing on Ugra river, Muscovy gained independence from Great Horde.

1481: Spanish Inquisition begins in practice with first auto de fé.

1485: Matthias Corvinus of Hungary captured Vienna, Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor ran away

1485: Henry VII defeats Richard III at Battle of Bosworth & becomes King of England

1485: Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya drives out Praudha Raya ending Sangama Dynasty

1486: Sher Shah Suri, is born in Sasaram, Bihar

1492: death of Sunni Ali Ber left a leadership void in Songhai Empire, & his son was soon dethroned by Mamadou Toure who ascended throne in 1492 under name Askia (meaning "general") Muhammad. Askia Muhammad made Songhai largest empire in history of West Africa. empire went into decline, however, after 1528, when now-blind Askia Muhammad was dethroned by his son, Askia Musa.

1492: Boabdil's surrender of Granada marks end of Spanish Reconquista & Al-Andalus.

1492: Jews expelled from Spain.

1492: Christopher Columbus landed in Americas from Spain.

1494: Spain & Portugal sign Treaty of Tordesillas & agree to divide World outside of Europe between themselves.

1494–1559: Italian Wars lead to downfall of Italian city-states.

1497–1499: Vasco da Gama's first voyage from Europe to India & back.

1499: Ottoman fleet defeats Venetians at Battle of Zonchio.

[edit] Significant people

Abu Sa'id al-Afif, a Samaritan physician.

Afonso de Albuquerque (1453–1515) was a Portuguese nobleman, naval general officer whose military & administrative activities conquered & established Portuguese colonial empire in Indian ocean. Generally considered as a world conquest military genius by means of his successful strategy.

Constantine XI, Last Byzantine Emperor (1404–1453).

Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, Renaissance ruler (1443–1490).

Gjergj Kastrioti, Skenderbeg – Albanian Prince who resisted Ottomans for almost 30 years (1443–1468).

Ferdinand II of Aragon, co-ruler of Spain with Isabella I of Castile & responsible with her for unification of Spain (1452–1516).

Johannes Gutenberg, European inventor of printing with movable type (c. 1398 – 1468)

Henry Navigator Infante Henrique, Duke of Viseu (1394–1460); infante (prince) of Portuguese House of Aviz & an important figure in early days of Portuguese Empire, being responsible for beginning of European worldwide explorations.

Henry V of England, English King who won famous Battle of Agincourt in 1415 (1387–1422).

Henry VII of England, English King & founder Tudor dynasty (1457–1509).

The Princes in Tower, Edward V of England (1470–1483?) & his brother, Richard of Shrewsbury, 1st Duke of York (1473–1483?), two sons of Edward IV of England & Elizabeth Woodville.

John Hunyadi, Regent of Kingdom of Hungary, won Siege of Belgrade in 1456 (1387–1456)

Jan Hus, Bohemian religious thinker & reformer (c. 1369–1415).

Isabella I of Castile, co-ruler of Spain with Ferdinand II of Aragon & responsible for unification of Spain & discovery of New World (1451–1504).

Joan of Arc, military commander & national heroine of France (1412–1431).

Kazimierz IV Jagiellon King of Poland & Grand Duke of Lithuania (1427–1492).

Louis XI, King of France (1423–1483).

Mehmed II, Sultan of Ottoman Empire & Conqueror of Constantinople (1432–1481).

Guru Nanak, founder of Sikh Religion (1469).

Sejong Great of Joseon, a Korean monarch who developed hangul, native Korean alphabet (1397–1450).

Stephen III of Moldavia, also known as Stephen Great, ruler of Moldavia, national hero of Romanians for long resistance to Ottomans (1437–1504)

Richard III of England, last English King of House of York, last of House of Plantagenet (1452–1485).

Mir Chakar Khan Rind (1468–1565), a Baloch king.

Vlad III Dracula, Prince of Wallachia who led defense of his territory against expanding Ottoman Empire (1431–1476).

[edit] Visual artists, architects, sculptors, printmakers, illustrators

Bartolomé Bermejo (c. 1440 – 1498), Spanish painter who adopted Dutch painting techniques & conventions.

Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450 – 1516), Early Netherlandish painter. Many of his works depict sin & human moral failings.

Sandro Botticelli (c. 1445 – 1510), Italian painter.

Dirk Bouts (c. 1410/1420 – 1475), Early Netherlandish painter.

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), invents one-point perspective, leads innovation in Italian architecture.

Robert Campin (c. 1375 – 1444), Master of Flémalle, first great master of Early Netherlandish painting.

Petrus Christus (c. 1410/1420 – 1475/1476), Early Netherlandish painter.

Gerard David (c. 1460 – 1523), Early Netherlandish painter & manuscript illuminator known for his brilliant use of color.

Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)[1] was a German painter, printmaker & theorist from Nuremberg, Germany.

Barthélemy d'Eyck[2]; (c. 1420 – after 1470)[3] was an Early Netherlandish artist who worked in France & probably in Burgundy Early Netherlandish painter & manuscript illuminator. He was active between about 1440 to about 1469.[4]

Hubert van Eyck (c. 1366 – 1426), Flemish painter & older brother of Jan van Eyck.

Jan van Eyck (before c. 1395 – before 1441), Early Netherlandish painter, considered one of best Northern European painters of 15th century.

Juan de Flandes (1460–1519), Early Netherlandish painter who was active in Spain from 1496 to 1519 at court of Isabella I of Castile.

Jean Fouquet (1420–1481) French painter of both panel painting & manuscript illumination, inventor of portrait miniature.

Nicolas Froment (c. 1435 – c. 1486), French painter.

Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455) was an Italian artist of early Renaissance best known for works in sculpture & metalworking.

Hugo van der Goes (c. 1440 – 1482 or 1483), Early Netherlandish painter.

Jean Hey (c. 1475 – c. 1505),[5] now generally identified with artist formerly known as Master of Moulins, Early Netherlandish painter.

Hans Holbein Elder (c. 1460 – 1524), German painter, woodcut artist, illustrator of books & church window designer.[6] He & his brother Sigismund Holbein painted religious works in late Gothic style.

Limbourg brothers, (Herman, Paul, & Johan; 1385–1416), Dutch Renaissance miniature painters from city of Nijmegen.

Simon Marmion (c. 1425 – 1489) French, or Burgundian, painter of panels & illuminated manuscripts.

Masaccio, (c. 1401 – 1428), Italian painter.

Hans Memling (c. 1430 – 1494), Early Netherlandish painter, born in Germany.

Enguerrand Quarton (c. 1410 – c. 1466) was a French painter & manuscript illuminator.

Leonardo da Vinci, (1452–1519), Italian polymath, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician & writer.

Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400 – 1464), considered one of greatest exponents of Early Netherlandish painting.

See links above for Italian Renaissance painting & Renaissance sculpture.

[edit] Literature

Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) was an Italian author, artist, architect, poet, linguist, philosopher, & cryptographer, & general Renaissance humanist polymath.

Joseph Albo (Hebrew: יוסף אלבו) (c. 1380 – 1444) was a Jewish philosopher & rabbi who lived in Spain. author of Sefer ha-Ikkarim ("Book of Principles"), classic work on fundamentals of Judaism.

Marsilio Ficino, Significant translator of Plato's works (1433–1481).

John Lydgate (c. 1370 – c. 1451)[7] was a monk & poet, born in Lidgate, Suffolk, England.

Sir Thomas Malory (c. 1405 – March 14, 1471) was an English writer, author or compiler of Le Morte d'Arthur.

Pal Engjëlli (1416-1470) was an Albanian Catholic clergyman, Archbishop of Durrës & Cardinal of Albania who in 1462 wrote first known sentence in Albanian.

Count Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), Italian Renaissance philosopher.[8] He is famed for events of 1486, when at age of twenty-three, he wrote famous Oration on Dignity of Man which has been called "Manifesto of Renaissance",[9] & a key text of Renaissance humanism.

Thomas Occleve (c. 1368 – 1426), English poet.

Reginald Pecock (c. 1395 – 1460), was an English prelate & writer.

Christine de Pizan, French writer (1364–1430).

François Villon, French poet (c. 1431 – 1474).

[edit] Musicians & Composers

Adrien Basin (c. 1457 – 1476; died after 1498), Franco-Flemish composer, singer, & diplomat of Burgundian school of early Renaissance.

Gilles Binchois, (c. 1400 – 1460), Franco-Flemish composer, one of earliest members of Burgundian School.

Antoine Busnois (c. 1430 – 1492), French composer & poet of early Renaissance Burgundian School.

Guillaume Dufay, (c. 1397 – 1474), Franco-Flemish composer & music theorist.

John Dunstaple (c. 1390 – 1453), English composer of polyphonic music.

Hayne van Ghizeghem (c. 1445 – 1472 or possibly later; New Grove says he died between 1472 & 1497), Flemish composer of early Renaissance Burgundian School.

Nicolas Grenon (c. 1375 – 1456), French composer of early Renaissance.

Robert Morton (c. 1430 – 1479), English composer of early Renaissance.

Johannes Ockeghem, (c. 1410 – 1497), Flemish composer.

Leonel Power (c. 1370 to 1385 – 1445), English composer of late Medieval & early Renaissance eras.

Johannes Tapissier (c. 1370 – 1408 to 1410), French composer & teacher of late Middle Ages.

Jacobus Vide (c. 1405 – 1433), Franco-Flemish composer of transitional period between medieval period & early Renaissance.

[edit] Exploration

Johann Schiltberger (1381 – c. 1440), German traveller throughout Middle East & Central Asia.

Diogo de Azambuja (1432–1518) Portuguese explorer of African coast.

John Cabot (c. 1450 – 1499) – Italian explorer for England. Discovered Newfoundland & claimed it for Kingdom of England.

Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467 – c. 1520), Portuguese navigator & explorer.

Pêro Vaz de Caminha (c. 1450 – 1500), Portuguese explorer that accompanied Pedro Álvares Cabral in discovery of Brazil.

Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) – Italian explorer for Spain. Sailed in 1492 & discovered "New World" of Americas.

Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469), Venetian merchant & explorer, born in Chioggia, who traveled to India & Southeast Asia.

Bartolomeu Dias (c. 1450 – 1500) – Portuguese explorer. He sailed from Portugal & reached Cape of Good Hope.

Vasco da Gama reaches India for Portugal, creating first maritime alternative for Silk Road (c. 1469 – 1524)

Zheng He, Chinese eunuch admiral & explorer (1371–1433).

João Fernandes Lavrador (1445?–1501) – Portuguese explorer. One of first European's to reach Newfoundland & Labrador.

João da Nova (c. 1460 – 1509), Portuguese explorer of Atlantic & Indian Ocean.

Amerigo Vespucci (c. 1454 – 1512) – Italian explorer for Spain. Sailed in 1499 & 1502. He explored east coast of South America.

[edit] Science, invention & philosophy

Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1400 – 1468) was a German goldsmith & printer who is credited with inventing movable type printing in Europe around 1439, & mechanical printing globally.

Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) was a German/Austrian astronomer & mathematician.

[edit] Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 15th century inventions

Renaissance affects philosophy, science & art.

Age of Discovery begins.

Rise of Modern English language from Middle English.

Introduction of noon bell in Catholic world.

Public banks

Yongle Encyclopedia—over 22,000 volumes

Hangul alphabet in Korea

Scotch whisky

Psychiatric hospitals

Development of woodcut for printing between 1400–1450

Movable type first used by King Taejong of Joseon—1403 (Movable type, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to form words, was invented in China by Bi Sheng between 1041 to 1048.)

Although pioneered earlier in Korea & by Chinese official Wang Zhen (with tin), bronze metal movable type printing is created in China by Hua Sui in 1490.

Johannes Gutenberg invents printing press in Europe (c. 1455).

Linear perspective drawing perfected by Filippo Brunelleschi 1410–1415

Invention of harpsichord c. 1450

Discovery of Americas by Christopher Columbus 1492

First pound lock in Europe reportedly built in Vreeswijk, Netherlands in 1481

16th

Polybius' "The Histories" translated in to Italian, English, German & French.[1]

Mississippian culture disappears.

Medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia (modern Turkey), is made. It is now kept at Saint Louis Art Museum.

[edit] 1500–1509

1500: Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón discovers Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by Treaty of Tordesillas.

1500: Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal.

1500: Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats Venetians at Second Battle of Lepanto.

1501: Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on statue David.

1501: Safavid dynasty reunified Iran & ruled over it until 1736. Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam.[2]

1502 : First reported African slaves in New World

1503: Foundation of Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas, in what is modern Sudan

1503: Spain defeats France at Battle of Cerignola. Considered to be first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms.

1503: Leonardo da Vinci begins painting Mona Lisa & completes it three or four years later.

1503: Nostradamus was born on either December 14, or December 21.

1504: A droughty period, with famine in all of Spain.

1506: King Afonso I of Kongo wins battle of Mbanza Kongo, resulting in Catholicism becoming Kongo's state religion.

1506: At least two thousand converted Jews are massacred in a Lisbon riot.

1506: Christopher Columbus dies in Valladolid, Spain.

1506: Poland is invaded by Tatars from Crimean Khanate.

1507: first recorded epidemic of smallpox in New World occurs on island of Hispaniola & decimates native Taíno population.[3]

1509: Battle of Diu marks beginning of Portuguese dominance of Spice trade.

[edit] 1510s

1509–10: 'great plague' afflicts various parts of Tudor England.[4]

1511: Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal conquers Malacca, capital of Sultanate of Malacca.

1512: Copernicus writes Commentariolus, & moves sun to center of solar system.

1512: southern part (historical core) of Kingdom of Navarre is invaded by Castile & Aragon.

1513: Machiavelli writes Prince, a treatise about political philosophy

1513: Portuguese mariner Jorge Álvares lands at Macau, China, during Ming Dynasty.

1513: Henry VIII crush French at Battle of Spurs.

1513: Battle of Flodden Field in which invading Scots are defeated by Henry VIII's forces.

1513: Sultan Selim I ("The Grim") orders massacre of Shia Muslims in Anatolia.

1513: Vasco Núñez de Balboa, in service of Spain arrives at Pacific Ocean (which he called Mar del Sur) across Isthmus of Panama. It was first European to sight new ocean.

1514: Battle of Orsha halts Muscovy's expansion into Eastern Europe.

1514: Battle of Chaldiran, Ottoman Empire gains decisive victory against Safavid dynasty.

1515: Ottoman Empire wrests Eastern Anatolia from Safavids after Battle of Chaldiran.

1516–17: Ottomans defeat Mamluks & gain control of Egypt, Arabia, & Levant.

1517: Sweating sickness epidemic hits Tudor England.[5]

1517: Protestant Reformation begins when Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses in Saxony.

1518: Mir Chakar Khan Rind leaves Baluchistan & settled in Punjab.

1519: Leonardo da Vinci dies of natural causes at May 2.

1519: Wang Yangming, Chinese philosopher & governor of Jiangxi province, describes his intent to use fire power of fo-lang-ji, a breech-loading Portuguese culverin, in order to suppress rebellion of Prince Zhu Chen-hao.

1519: Barbary pirates led by Hayreddin Barbarossa raid Provence & Toulon in southern France.

1519: Charles I of Spain becomes Emperor of Holy Roman Empire as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (ruled until 1556).

1519–22: Spanish expedition commanded by Magellan & Elcano first to circle Earth

1519–21: Hernán Cortés leads Spanish conquest of Mexico.

[edit] 1520s

1520–1566: reign of Suleiman Magnificent marks zenith of Ottoman Empire.

1520: first European diplomatic mission to Ethiopia, sent by Portuguese, arrives at Massawa 9 April, & reaches imperial encampment of Emperor Dawit II in Shewa 9 October.

1521: Belgrade is captured by Ottoman Empire.

1521: After building fortifications at Tuen Mun, Portuguese attempt to invade Ming Dynasty China, but are expelled by Chinese naval forces.

1521: Philippines discovered by Ferdinand Magellan. He was later killed in battle in central Philippines in same year.

1522: Rhodes falls to Ottoman Turks of Suleiman Magnificent.[6]

1523: Sweden gains independence from Kalmar Union.

1524–25: German Peasants' War in Holy Roman Empire.

1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano is first European to explore Atlantic coast of North America between South Carolina & Newfoundland.

1524 - Ismail I, founder of Safavid dynasty, dead & Tahmasp I became king.

1525: Spain & Germany defeat France at Battle of Pavia, Francis I of France is captured.

1526: Ottomans defeat Kingdom of Hungary at Battle of Mohács.

1526: Mughal Empire, founded by Babur, rules India until 1739 & hold titles until 1857.

1527: Sack of Rome, which is considered end of Italian Renaissance.

1527: Protestant Reformation begins in Sweden.

1529: Austrians defeat Ottoman Empire at Siege of Vienna.

1529: Treaty of Zaragoza defined antimeridian of Tordesillas attributing Moluccas to Portugal & Philippines to Spain.

1529: Imam Ahmad Gragn defeats Ethiopian Emperor Dawit II in Battle of Shimbra Kure, opening clash of Ethiopian–Adal War

[edit] 1530s

1531–32: Church of England breaks away from Roman Catholic Church & recognizes King Henry VIII as head of Church.

1531: Inca Civil War is fought between two brothers, Atahualpa & Huáscar.

1532: Francisco Pizarro leads Spanish conquest of Inca Empire.

1533: Anne Boleyn becomes Queen of England.

1533: Elizabeth Tudor is born.

1534: Jacques Cartier claims Quebec for France.

1534: Ottomans capture Baghdad.

1534: Affair of Placards – Francis becomes more active in repression of French Protestants.

1535: Münster Rebellion, an attempt of radical, millennialist, Anabaptists to establish a theocracy ends in bloodshed.

1536: Katherine of Aragon dies in Kimbolton Castle.

1536: Anne Boleyn is beheaded for adultery & treason.

1536: Establishment of Inquisition in Portugal

1536: Foundation of Buenos Aires by Pedro de Mendoza

1537: Portuguese establishes Recife in Pernambuco, north-east of Brazil.

1538: Spanish–Venetian fleet is defeated by Ottoman Turks at Battle of Preveza.

1539: Hernando de Soto explores inland North America.

[edit] 1540s

1541: Pedro de Valdivia founds Santiago de Chile.

1541: An Algerian military campaign by Charles V of Spain (Habsburg) is unsuccessful.

1541: Amazon River is discovered & explored by Francisco de Orellana.

1541: Capture of Buda & absorption of major part of Hungary by Ottoman Empire.

1541: Sahib I Giray of Crimea invade Russia.

1542: War resumes between Francis I of France & Emperor Charles V. This time Henry VIII is allied to Emperor, while James V of Scotland & Sultan Suleiman I are allied to French.

1543: Ethiopian/Portuguese troops decisively defeat Muslim army at Battle of Wayna Daga; Imam Ahmad Gragn killed.

1543: Nanban trade period begins after Portuguese traders make contact with Japan.

1544: French defeat an Imperial–Spanish army at Battle of Ceresole.

1544: Battle of Shirts in Scotland. Frasers & Macdonalds of Clan Ranald fight over a disputed chiefship; reportedly, 5 Frasers & 8 Macdonalds survive.

1545: Songhai forces sack Malian capital of Niani

1546: Michelangelo Buonarroti is made chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica.

1547: Emperor Charles V decisively dismantles Schmalkaldic League at Battle of Mühlberg.

1547: Grand Prince Ivan Terrible is crowned tsar of (All)Russia, thenceforth becoming first Russian tsar.

1548: Battle of Uedahara: Firearms are used for first time on battlefield in Japan, & Takeda Shingen is defeated by Murakami Yoshikiyo.

1548: Ming Dynasty government of China issues a decree banning all foreign trade & closes down all seaports along coast; these Hai jin laws came during Wokou wars with Japanese pirates.

1549: Tomé de Souza establishes Salvador in Bahia, north-east of Brazil .

[edit] 1550s

1550: Mongols led by Altan Khan invade China & besiege Beijing.

1550–1551: Valladolid debate concerning existence of souls in Amerindians

1551: Fifth outbreak of sweating sickness in England. John Caius of Shrewsbury writes first full contemporary account of symptoms of disease.

1551: North African pirates enslave entire population of Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000 & 6,000, sending them to Libya.

1552: Russia conquers Khanate of Kazan.

1553: Mary Tudor becomes first queen regnant of England.

1553: Portuguese found a settlement at Macau.

1554: Portuguese missionaries José de Anchieta & Manuel da Nóbrega establishes São Paulo, southeast Brazil.

1555: mik Muscovy Company is first major English joint stock trading company.

1556: Publication in Venice of Delle Navigiationi et Viaggi (terzo volume) by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, secretary of Council of Ten, with plan La Terra de Hochelaga, an illustration of Indian village Hochelaga. See [1]

1556: Shaanxi Earthquake in China is history's deadliest known earthquake.

1556: Georgius Agricola, "Father of Mineralogy", publishes his De re metallica.

1556: Akbar Great defeats Sultan of Bengal at Second battle of Panipat

1556: Russia conquers Astrakhan Khanate.

1556–1605: During his reign, Akbar expands Mughal Empire in a series of conquests.

1556: Mir Chakar Khan Rind captured Delhi with Emperor Humayun.

1556: Pomponio Algerio, radical theologian, is executed by boiling in oil as part of Roman inquisition.

1557: Spain became first sovereign nation in history to declare bankruptcy. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 & 1596.

1557: Portuguese settle in Macau.

1557: Ottomans capture Massawa, all but isolating Ethiopia from rest of world.

1558 Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen Elizabeth I at age 25.

1558–1603: Elizabethan era is considered height of English Renaissance.

1558–83: Livonian War between Poland, Grand Principality of Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark & Russia.

1558: After 200 years, Kingdom of England loses Calais to France.

1559: With Peace of Cateau Cambrésis, Italian Wars conclude.

[edit] 1560s

1560: Ottoman navy defeats Spanish fleet at Battle of Djerba.

1560: Erzsebet Bathory is born in Nyirbator, Hungary.

1560: By winning Battle of Okehazama, Oda Nobunaga becomes one of pre-eminent warlords of Japan

1561: Guido de Bres draws up Belgic Confession of Protestant faith.

1562: Mughal leader Akbar reconciles Muslim & Hindu factions by marrying into powerful Rajput Hindu caste.

1562–98: French Wars of Religion between Catholics & Huguenots.

1562: Massacre of Wassy & Battle of Dreux in French Wars of Religion.

1563: Plague outbreak claimed 80,000 people in Elizabethan England. In London alone, over 20,000 people died of disease.

1564: Galileo Galilei born on February 15

1564: William Shakespeare baptized 26 April

1565: Battle of Talikota fought between Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar & Deccan sultanates.

1565: Mir Chakar Khan Rind died age of 97.

1565: Estácio de Sá establishes Rio de Janeiro in Brazil.

1565: Hospitallers defeat Ottoman Empire at Siege of Malta (1565).

1566–1648: Eighty Years' War between Spain & Netherlands.

1567: Mary, Queen of Scots, is imprisoned by Elizabeth I.

1568–1571: Morisco Revolt in Spain.

1568–1600: Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan.

1569: Rising of North in England.

1569: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is created with Union of Lublin which lasts until 1795.

[edit] 1570s

1570: Ivan Terrible orders massacre of inhabitants of Novgorod.

1571: Pope Pius V completes Holy League as a united front against Ottoman Turks.

1571: Holy League destroys Ottoman Empire navy at Battle of Lepanto.

1571: Crimean Tatars attack & sack Moscow, burning everything but Kremlin.

1571: Spanish missionaries are murdered by Indians at later Jamestown Settlement, Virginia.

1572: Brielle is taken from Habsburg Spain by Protestant Watergeuzen in Capture of Brielle, in Eighty Years' War.

1572: Spanish conquistadores apprehend last Inca leader Tupak Amaru at Vilcabamba, Peru, & execute him in Cuzco.

1572: Catherine de' Medici instigates St. Bartholomew's Day massacre which takes lives of Protestant leader Gaspard de Coligny & thousands of Huguenots. violence spreads from Paris to other cities & countryside.

1572: First edition of epic Lusiads of Luís Vaz de Camões, three years after author returned from East.

1573: After heavy losses on both sides Siege of Haarlem ends in a Spanish victory.

1574: in Eighty Years' War capital of Zeeland, Middelburg declares for Protestants.

1574: After a siege of 4 months Siege of Leiden ends in a comprehensive Dutch victory.

1575: Oda Nobunaga finally captures Nagashima fortress.

1576: Tahmasp I, Safavid king, died.

1576: Sack of Antwerp by badly paid Spanish soldiers.

1577–80: Francis Drake circles world.

1578: King Sebastian of Portugal is killed at Battle of Alcazarquivir.

1579: Union of Utrecht unifies northern Netherlands, a foundation for later Dutch Republic.

1579: Union of Arras unifies southern Netherlands, a foundation for later states of Spanish Netherlands, Austrian Netherlands & Belgium

[edit] 1580s

1580: Drake's royal reception after his attacks on Spanish possessions, influences Philip II of Spain to build up Spanish Armada. English ships in Spanish harbours are impounded.

1580: Spain unifies with Portugal under Philip II. struggle for throne of Portugal ends Portuguese Empire. Spanish & Portuguese crowns are united for 60 years, i.e. until 1640.

1582: Pope Gregory XIII issues Gregorian calendar.

1582: Yermak Timofeyevich conquers Siberia Khanate on behalf of Stroganovs.

1584–85: After Siege of Antwerp, many of its merchants flee to Amsterdam.

1585–1604: Anglo-Spanish War is fought on both sides of Atlantic.

1587 - reign of Abbas I marks zenith of Safavid dynasty.

1588: England repulses Spanish Armada.

1589: Spain repulses English Armada.

[edit] 1590s

1591: Gazi Giray leads a huge Tatar expedition against Moscow.

1591: In Mali, Moroccan forces of Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur led by Judar Pasha defeat Songhai Empire at Battle of Tondibi.

1592–1593: John Stow reports 10,675 plague deaths in London, a city of approximately 200,000 people.

1592–98: Korea, with help of Ming Dynasty China, repels two Japanese invasions.

1593–1606: Long War between Habsburg monarchy & Ottoman Turks.

1598: Edict of Nantes ends French Wars of Religion.

1598: Abbas I moved Safavids capital from Qazvin to Isfahan in 1598.

1598–1613: Russia descends into anarchy during Time of Troubles.

1599: Mali Empire is defeated at Battle of Jenné

1600: Giordano Bruno is burned at stake for heresy in Rome.

1600: Battle of Sekigahara in Japan. End of Warring States period & beginning of Edo period.

[edit] Significant people

Title page of First Folio, 1623. Copper engraving of Shakespeare by Martin Droeshout.

Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar, Miguel de Cervantes, c.1610

Hans Holbein Younger, Portrait of Sir Thomas More, 1527, oil on wood, 74.2 x 59 cm, Frick Collection, New York

John Calvin

Michelangelo Buonarroti

Leonardo da Vinci

Raphael

Albrecht Dürer

Miyamoto Musashi

Galileo Galilei

Niccolò Machiavelli

Leonardo da Vinci famous artist & inventor & scientist (1452 – 1519).

Henry VII of England, founder of Tudor dynasty. Introduced ruthlessly efficient mechanisms of taxation which restored kingdom after a state of virtual bankruptcy due to effects of Wars of Roses (1457 – 1509).

Ismail I (1487-1524) reunified Persia, established Safavid dynasty & declared Shia Islam as state religion.

Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (sometimes known as Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam) (October 27, 1466/1469, Rotterdam– July 12, 1536 Basel was a Dutch Renaissance humanist & Catholic Christian theologian.

Zygmunt I Old, King of Poland, established a conscription army & bureaucracy needed to finance it (1467 – 1548).

György Dózsa, leader of peasants' revolt in Hungary (1470 – 1514)

Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian painter & sculptor (1475 – 1564).

Raphael, Italian painter, (1483 – 1520)

Martin Luther, German religious reformer (1483 – 1546).

Giovanni Battista Ramusio (20 July 485 – 10 July 1557), diplomat & secretary of council of Ten of Venice Italy, author of Delle Navigationi et Viaggi. Third volume (terzo volume) containing plan La Terra de Hochelaga showing village of Hochelaga.

King Henry VIII of England, founder of Anglicanism (1491 – 1547).

Anne Boleyn, second wife of King Henry VIII. She was first Queen of England to be executed, & mother of Queen Elizabeth I. (c. 1501 - 1536)

William Shakespeare, 1564–1616)[a] was an English poet & playwright, widely regarded as greatest writer in English language & world's pre-eminent dramatist.[1] He is often called England's national poet & "Bard of Avon".

Ignatius of Loyola, founder of Society of Jesus (1491 – 1556).

Paracelsus (11 November or 17 December 1493 in Einsiedeln, Switzerland – 24 September 1541 in Salzburg, Austria), Renaissance physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, & general occultist.

King Francis I of France, considered first Renaissance monarch of his Kingdom (1494 – 1547).

Suleiman Magnificent, Sultan of Ottoman Empire. Conqueror & legal reformer (1494 – 1566).

Abbas I, strongest king of Safavid dynasty (1571-1629).

King Gustav I of Sweden, restored Swedish sovereignty & introduced Protestantism in Sweden (1496–1560).

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor & first to reign as King of Spain. Involved in almost constant conflict with France & Ottoman Empire while promoting Spanish colonization of Americas (1500 – 1558).

Cuauhtémoc, last Tlatoani of Aztec, led native resistance against Conquistadores (1502 – 1525).

Michel Nostradamus, French astrologer & doctor, author of Les Propheties, a book of world prophecies (1503 – 1566).

Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, Somali Imam & general (1507 – 1543).

Andrea Palladio (November 30, 1508 – August 19, 1580), one of most influential architect of Western architecture

John Calvin, theologian, & reformer. Founder of Calvinism (1509 – 1564).

Manus Ó Domhnaill (Manus O'Donnell), King of Tír Chonaill in Ulster. Irish Renaisance prince (d. 1564).

Andreas Vesalius, anatomist, physician, & author of one of most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On Workings of Human Body).(1514–1564)

Mary I of England. Attempted to counter Protestant Reformation in her domains. Nicknamed Bloody Mary for her Religious persecution (1516 – 1558).

Andrea Amati, (c. 1520 – c. 1578) was earliest maker of violins whose instruments still survive today.

John Knox (c. 1510 – 1572) was a Scottish clergyman & leader of Protestant Reformation who is considered founder of Presbyterian denomination.

King Philip II of Spain, self-proclaimed leader of Counter-Reformation (1527 – 1598).

Ivan IV of Russia, first Russian tsar (1533–1584).

William Silent, William I of Orange-Nassau, main leader of Dutch revolt against Spanish (1533–1584).

Elizabeth I of England, central figure of Elizabethan era (1533 – 1603). She was granddaughter of aforementioned Henry VII, daughter of Henry VIII & paternal half-sister of Mary I. Though some within her court thought of her merely as a bastard, because her father executed her supposedly criminal mother Anne Boleyn, her reign is still considered one of greatest ever in England's history.

Oda Nobunaga , daimyo of Sengoku period of Japanese civil war. First ruler of Azuchi-Momoyama period (1534 – 1582).

Toyotomi Hideyoshi , daimyo of Sengoku period of Japanese civil war. Second ruler of Azuchi-Momoyama period (1536 – 1598).

Edward VI of England, notable for further differentiating Anglicanism from practices of Roman Catholic Church (1537 – 1553).

Lady Jane Grey, Queen regnant of England & Ireland. Notably deposed by popular revolt (1537 – 1554).

Mary, Queen of Scots, First female head of House of Stuart (1542 – 1587).

Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Dutch politician & Grand Pensionary, played a pivotal role in organizing Dutch revolt against Spain (1542 – 1619).

Admiral Yi Sun-sin , Korean admiral, respected as one of greatest admirals in world history. (1545 – 1598).

Matteo Ricci, Italian Jesuit who traveled to Macau, China in 1582, & died in Beijing, (1552 – 1610)

King Henry IV of France & Navarre, ended French Wars of Religion & reunited kingdom under his command (1553 – 1610).

Michael Brave, ruler of Walachia, national symbol of Romanians for uniting three provinces under his rule in 1600 (1558 – 1601)

Wanli Emperor, Emperor of China during Ming Dynasty, aided Korea in Imjin War, (1563 – 1620)

Sigismund III Vasa, first & only monarch of Polish–Swedish union; his long reign in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth coincided with apex of Commonwealth's prestige, power & economic influence (1566 – 1632).

[edit] Exploration

Vasco Núñez de Balboa (c. 1475–1519) – Spanish explorer. first European to cross Isthmus of Panama & view Pacific ocean from American shores.

Pedro Álvares Cabral, Portuguese navigator. first European to arrive in Brazil in 22 April 1500 (c. 1467 – 1520).

Jacques Cartier (1491–1557) – French explorer. Discovered Canada.

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado (c. 1510–1554) – Spanish explorer. Searched for Seven Cities of Gold & discovered Grand Canyon in process

Hernán Cortés, Spanish Conquistador (1485 – 1547).

Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540–1596) – English explorer. first English captain to sail around world & survive.

Juan Sebastián Elcano (1476–1526) – Spanish explorer. Completed first circumnavigation of globe in a single expedition after its captain, Magellan, was killed.

Vasco da Gama, Portuguese navigator. first one to sail around Cape of Good Hope (c. 1469 – 1524).

Juan Ponce de León (c. 1460–1521) – Spanish explorer. He explored Florida while attempting to locate a Fountain of Youth.

Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator who sailed around world (1480 – 1521).

Francisco de Orellana (1511–1546) – Spanish explorer in 1541–42 sails length of Amazon River.

Francisco Pizarro (c. 1475–1541) – Spanish explorer. Conquered Inca Empire.

Hernando de Soto (c. 1496–1542) – Spanish explorer. Explored Florida, mainly northwest Florida, & discovered Mississippi River.

Luis Váez de Torres (c. 1565–1607) Spanish or Portuguese navigator. Explored Pacific for Spanish crown.

Giovanni da Verrazzano (c. 1485–1528) – Italian explorer for France. Explored northeast coast of America, from about present day South Carolina to Newfoundland.

[edit] Visual artists

Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian painter & sculptor (1475 – 1564).

Caravaggio, Italian artist (1571 – 1610).

Albrecht Dürer, German artist, (1471 – 1528)

Hans Holbein Younger, German artist, (1497 – 1543)

Raphael, Italian painter, (1483 – 1520)

Donato Bramante (1444 – March 11, 1514)

Titian, Italian painter, (c. 1485 – 1576)

Paolo Veronese, Italian painter, (1528 – April 19, 1588)

Leonardo da Vinci famous artist & inventor & scientist (1452 – 1519).

Qiu Ying, Chinese painter who belonged to Wu School & used gongbi brush style (1494 – 1552)

Pieter Bruegel Elder, (c. 1525 – September 9, 1569)

Jan Brueghel Elder (1568 – January 13, 1625)

Tintoretto (real name Jacopo Comin; September 29, 1518 – May 31, 1594)

Lucas Cranach Elder (1472–1553)

Lucas Cranach Younger (1515–1586)

El Greco (1541 – April 7, 1614) was a painter, sculptor, & architect of Spanish Renaissance

Mimar Sinan (1489–1588) was a civil engineer & chief architect of Ottoman Empire

Domenico Fontana (1543 – June 28, 1607) was an architect

[edit] Musicians & Composers

Andrea Amati (c. 1520 – c. 1578)

Felice Anerio (c. 1560–1614)

Adriano Banchieri (c. 1557–1634)

Giovanni Bassano (c. 1558–1617)

William Brade (1560–1630)

John Bull (c. 1562–1628)

Giulio Caccini (c. 1545–1618)

Dario Castello (c. 1560–c. 1640)

Emilio de' Cavalieri (c. 1550–March 11, 1602)

Jacques Champion (before 1555–1642)

Manuel Rodrigues Coelho (c. 1555–c. 1635)

John Dowland (1563–1626)

Giles Farnaby (1565–1640)

Alfonso Fontanelli (1557–1622)

Hans Leo Hassler (1562–1612)

Sebastian Aguilera de Heredia (1565–1627)

Ascanio Mayone (1565–1627)

Giovanni Bernardino Nanino (c. 1560–1623)

Johannes Nucius (c. 1556–1620)

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, (1525–1594)

Jacopo Peri (1561–1633)

Peter Philips (c. 1560–1628)

Hieronymus Praetorius (1560–1629)

Paolo Quagliati (c. 1555–1628)

Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562–1621)

Jean Titelouze (1563–1633)

Lodovico Grossi da Viadana (1564–1627)

Mimar(Architect) Sinan (1489-1588)

[edit] Literature

Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar, Spanish poet & painter, (1483 – 1541)

Luís de Camões, Portuguese poet (c. 1524 –1580).

Baldassare Castiglione, Italian author (1478 – 1529)

Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish author (1547 – 1616).

John Donne, English metaphysical poet (1572 – 1631)

John Ford, English dramatist (1586 – c. 1640).

Thomas Heywood, English dramatist (c, early 1570s – 1641)

Ben Jonson, English dramatist (c.1572 – 1637)

Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet (1530 – 1584)

Fuzuli, Azerbaijani poet (1483 – 1556)

Thomas Kyd, English dramatist (1558 – 1594)

Thomas Lodge, English dramatist (1558 – 1625)

Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian author (1469 – 1527)

Christopher Marlowe, English poet & dramatist (1564 – 1593).

Michel de Montaigne, French essayist (1533 – 1592).

Thomas More, English politician & author (1478 – 1535).

Miyamoto Musashi, famous warrior in Japan, author of Book of Five Rings, a treaty on strategy & martial combat. (1584 – 1645)

François Rabelais, French author (c. 1493 – 1553).

Mikołaj Rej, Polish writer (1505 – 1569).

Pierre de Ronsard, French poet. Called 'Prince of poets' of his generation. (1524 – 1585).

William Shakespeare, English playwright (1564 – 1616).

Edmund Spenser, English poet (c. 1552 – 1599)

Bâkî, Ottoman Turkish poet. He was known as "Sultan of poets" (1526 – 1600)

Lope de Vega, Spanish dramatist (1562 – 1635).

[edit] Science & Philosophy

Mulla Sadra, (1571-1641), single most important & influential philosopher in Muslim world in last four hundred years who introduced Transcendent Theosophy or al-hikmah al-muta'liyah .[7][8]

Sir Francis Bacon, (1561 – 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, & essayist. He is also known as a catalyst of scientific revolution.

Tycho Brahe, (1546 – 1601), Danish astronomer.

Giordano Bruno, Italian philosopher & astronomer/astrologer (1548 – 1600).

Nicolaus Copernicus, (1473 – 1543) astronomer, developed heliocentric (Sun-centered) theory using scientific methods.

Galileo Galilei (1564[9] – 1642) was a Tuscan (Italian) physicist, mathematician, astronomer, & philosopher who played a major role in scientific revolution.

Konrad Gessner (1516 – 1565) was a Swiss naturalist, bibliographer, Botanist, His three-volume Historiae animalium (1551–1558) is considered beginning of modern zoology

William Gilbert, also known as Gilberd, (1544 – 1603) was an English physician & a natural philosopher.

Johannes Kepler, (1571 - 1630), mathematician, astronomer, & philosopher who played a major role in scientific revolution.

Gerardus Mercator (5 March 1512 – 2 December 1594), famous cartographer

Emery Molyneux (died June 1598), was an Elizabethan maker of globes, mathematical instruments & ordnance. His terrestrial & celestial globes, first published in 1592, were first to be made in England & first to be made by an Englishman.

Andreas Vesalius (Brussels, December 31, 1514 – Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, physician, & author of one of most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On Workings of Human Body). Vesalius is often referred to as founder of modern human anatomy.

Edward Wright, (baptized 1561; died 1615), English mathematician & cartographer who determined mathematical basis of Mercator projection & produced first maps in England according to this method

[edit] Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Related article: List of 16th century inventions.

The Columbian Exchange introduces many plants, animals & diseases to Old & New Worlds.

Introduction of spinning wheel revolutionizes textile production in Europe.

The letter J is introduced into English alphabet.

1500: First portable watch is created by Peter Henlein of Germany.

1513: Juan Ponce de León sights Florida & Vasco Núñez de Balboa sights eastern edge of Pacific Ocean.

1519–22: Ferdinand Magellan & Juan Sebastián Elcano lead first circumnavigation of World.

1519–1540: In America, Hernando de Soto expeditions map Gulf of Mexico coastline & bays.

1525: Modern square root symbol (√ )

1540: Francisco Vásquez de Coronado sights Grand Canyon.

1541–42: Francisco de Orellana sails length of Amazon River.

1543: Copernicus publishes his theory that Earth & other planets revolve around Sun

1545: Theory of complex numbers is first developed by Gerolamo Cardamo of Italy.

1558: Camera obscura is first used in Europe by Giambattista della Porta of Italy.

1559–1562: Spanish settlements in Alabama/Florida & Georgia confirm dangers of hurricanes & local native warring tribes.

1565: Spanish settlers outside New Spain (Mexico) colonize Florida's coastline at St. Augustine.

1565: Invention of graphite pencil (in a wooden holder) by Conrad Gesner. Modernized in 1812.

1568: Gerardus Mercator creates first Mercator Projection map.

1572: Supernova SN 1572 is observed by Tycho Brahe in Milky Way.

1582: Gregorian calendar is introduced in Europe by Pope Gregory XIII & adopted by catholic countries.

c. 1583: Galileo Galilei of Pisa, Italy identifies constant swing of a pendulum, leading to development of reliable timekeepers.

1585: earliest known reference to 'sailing carriage' in China.

1589: William Lee invents stocking frame.

1591: First flush toilet is introduced by Sir John Harrington of England, design published under title 'The Metamorphosis of Ajax'.

1593: Galileo Galilei invents a thermometer.

1596: William Barents discovers Spitsbergen.

1597: Opera in Florence by Jacopo Peri.

17th

1600–1609

1600: Giordano Bruno is burned at stake for heresy in Rome.

1600: Battle of Sekigahara in Japan. End of Warring States period & beginning of Edo period.

1601: Battle of Kinsale, one of most important battles in Irish history, fought.

1601: Michael Brave (first unificator of Romania), voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia & Transylvania, is assassinated by order of Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii.

1601–1603: Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps a third of Russia.

1602: Dutch East India Company founded. Its success contributes to Dutch Golden Age.

1603: Elizabeth I of England dies & is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting crowns of Scotland & England.

1603: Tokugawa Ieyasu seizes control of Japan & establishes Tokugawa Shogunate which rules country until 1868.

1603–1623: After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands Persian Empire by capturing territory from Ottomans & Portuguese.

1605: Gunpowder Plot failed in England.

1605: fortresses of Veszprém & Visegrad are retaken by Ottomans.

1606: Long War between Ottoman Empire & Austria is ended with Peace of Zsitvatorok.

1606: Captain Willem Janszoon & his crew aboard Dutch East India Company ship Duyfken becomes first recorded Europeans to sight & make landfall in Australia.

1607: Jamestown, Virginia, is settled as what would become first permanent English colony in North America.

1607: Flight of Earls (the fleeing of most of native Gaelic aristocracy) occurs from County Donegal in west of Ulster in Ireland.

1608: Quebec City founded by Samuel de Champlain in New France (present-day Canada).

1609: Netherlands & Spain agree to a Twelve Years' Truce in Eighty Years' War.

1609: Pedro de Peralta, a later governor of New Mexico, establishes settlement of Santa Fe.

1609: Maximilian of Bavaria establishes Catholic League.

[edit] 1610s

1610: Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth army defeats combined Russian- Swedish forces at Battle of Klushino & conquers Moscow.

1613: Time of Troubles in Russia ends with establishment of House of Romanov which rules until 1917.

1613–1617: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is invaded by Tatars dozens of times.[3]

1616: last remaining Moriscos (Moors who had nominally converted to Christianity) in Spain are expelled.

1616: Shakespeare dies

1618: Bohemian Revolt precipitates Thirty Years' War which devastates Europe in years 1618–48.

1618: Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania joins Protestant Rebels.

1618: Manchus start invading China. Their conquest eventually topples Ming Dynasty.

1619: Bethlen Gabor is defeated outside Vienna.

[edit] 1620s

1620: Emperor Ferdinand II defeats Bohemian rebels in Battle of White Mountain.

1620: Puritan Pilgrims arrive in Mayflower at Cape Cod

1620–1621: Polish-Ottoman War over Moldavia.

1620: Bethlen Gabor allies with Ottomans & an invasion of Moldavia takes place. Polish suffer a disaster at Cecora on River Prut.

1621: Battle of Chocim: Poles & Cossacks under Jan Karol Chodkiewicz defeat Ottomans.

1622: Capture of Ormuz; island of Hormuz was captured by an Anglo-Persian force from Portuguese.

1622: Jamestown massacre: Algonquian natives kill 347 English settlers outside Jamestown, Virginia (1/3 of colony's population) & burn Henricus settlement.

1623: Maffeo Barberini is elected Pope Urban VIII at Papal conclave of 1623.

1624–1642: As chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu centralises power in France.

1625: New Amsterdam founded by Dutch West India Company in North America.

1626: St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican completed.

1627: Cardinal Richelieu lays siege to Protestant La Rochelle which eventually capitulates.

1629: Abbas I, Safavids king, died.

1629: Cardinal Richelieu allies with Swedish Protestant forces in Thirty Years' War to counter Ferdinand II's expansion.

[edit] 1630s

1631: Mount Vesuvius erupts

1632: Battle of Lützen, death of king of Sweden Gustav II Adolf.

1632: taj mahal building work started in agra, INDIA

1633: Galileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before Inquisition.

1634: Battle of Nördlingen results in Catholic victory.

1634: Emperor Fasilides expels Catholic Patriarch Afonso Mendes & several Jesuit missionaries from Ethiopia.

1636: Emperor Fasilides founds city of Gondar, which becomes capital of Ethiopia for next two centuries.

1636: Harvard University is founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

1639: Naval Battle of Downs – Republic of United Provinces fleet decisevely defeats a Spanish fleet in English waters.

1639: Disagreements between Farnese & Barberini Pope Urban VIII escalate into Wars of Castro & last until 1649.

1639–1651: Wars of Three Kingdoms, civil wars throughout Scotland, Ireland, & England.

[edit] 1640s

1640: King Charles was compelled to summon Parliament due to revolt of Scots.

1640–1668: Portuguese Restoration War led to end of Iberian Union.

1640: Torture is outlawed in England.

1641: Tokugawa Shogunate institutes Sakoku- foreigners are expelled & no one is allowed to enter or leave Japan.

1641: Irish Rebellion.

1641: René Descartes publishes Meditationes de prima philosophia Meditations on First Philosophy.

1642: Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman achieves first recorded European sighting of New Zealand.

1642–1649: Civil War in England; Charles I is beheaded by Cromwell

1644: Giovanni Battista Pamphili is elected Pope Innocent X at Papal conclave of 1644.

1644: Manchu conquer China ending Ming Dynasty. subsequent Qing Dynasty rules until 1912.

1644–1674: Mauritanian Thirty-Year War.

1645: death of Miyamoto Musashi, legendary Japanese Samurai warrior of natural causes.

1645–1669: Ottoman war with Venice. Ottomans invade Crete & capture Canea.

1647: Seven-year-old Mehmed IV becomes sultan.

1647–1652: Great Plague of Seville.

1648: Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years' War & Eighty Years' War & marks ends of Spain & Holy Roman Empire as major European powers.

1648–1653: Fronde civil war in France.

1648–1667: Deluge wars leave Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in ruins.

1648–1669: Ottomans capture Crete from Venetians after Siege of Candia.

1649–1653: Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.

[edit] 1650s

1652: Cape Town founded by Dutch East India Company in South Africa.

1652: Anglo-Dutch Wars begin.

1654–1661: Mehmed Köprülü is Grand Vizier.

1655–1661: Northern Wars cement Sweden's rise as a Great Power.

1658: After his father Shah Jahan completes Taj Mahal, his son Aurangzeb deposes him as ruler of Mughal Empire.

[edit] 1660s

1660: Commonwealth of England ends & monarchy is brought back during English Restoration.

1660: Royal Society of London for Improvement of Natural Knowledge founded.

1661: Mehmed Köprülü dies & is succeeded by his son Ahmed.

1661: reign of Kangxi Emperor of China begins.

1662: Koxinga captures Taiwan from Dutch & founds Kingdom of Tungning which rules until 1683.

1662: Jacques Aymar-Vernay, who later reintroduced Dowsing into popular use in Europe, is born.

1663: Ottoman war against Habsburg Hungary.

1663: France takes full political & military control over its colonial possessions in New France. Hooke's microscope discovers cells.

1664: Battle of St. Gotthard: count Raimondo Montecuccoli defeats Ottomans. Peace of Vasvar – intended to keep peace for 20 years.

1664: British troops capture New Amsterdam & rename it New York.

1664: John Evelyn's forestry book, Sylva, is published in England.

1665: Great Plague of London.

1665: Portugal defeats Kongo Empire.

1666: Great Fire of London.

1667–1668: War of Devolution; France invades Netherlands. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) brings this to a halt.

1667–1699: Great Turkish War halts Ottoman Empire's expansion into Europe.

1668: Peace Treaty of Lisbon between Spain & Portugal recognizes Portugal as independent country.

1669: Ottomans capture Crete.

[edit] 1670s

1670: Hudson's Bay Company is founded in Canada.

1672–1673: Ottoman campaign to help Ukrainian Cossacks. John Sobieski defeats Ottomans at second battle of Khotyn (1673).

1672–1676: Polish-Ottoman War.

1672: Rampjaar in Netherlands – Combined attack by France, England & two German states on Republic of United Provinces.

1672: Lynching of Johan de Witt & his brother Cornelis de Witt in Hague – William III of Orange takes power.

1672–1678: Franco-Dutch War.

1674: Treaty of Westminster ends war between England & Republic of United Provinces.

1674: Maratha Empire founded in India by Shivaji.

1676: Treaty of Zurawno brings Polish-Ottoman hostilities to a halt.

1676: Kara Mustafa becomes Grand Vizier.

1676–1681: Russia & Ottoman Empire commence Russo-Turkish Wars.

1678: Treaty of Nijmegen ends hostilities with France

[edit] 1680s

1680: Pueblo Revolt drives Spanish out of New Mexico until 1692.

1681: Pasha of Buda supports Imre Thököly's rebellion in Hungary.

1682: Sultan Mehmed IV, advised by Kara Mustafa, decides to disregard existing peace treaty with Leopold I, due to expire in 1684.

1682–1683: Ottomans make camp at Adrianople.

1682: Peter Great becomes joint ruler of Russia (sole tsar in 1696).

1682: La Salle explores length of Mississippi River & claims Louisiana for France.

1683: China conquers Kingdom of Tungning & annexes Taiwan.

1683: A Habsburg council of war is held in Vienna.

1683: Battle of Vienna finishes Ottoman Empire's hegemony in south-eastern Europe.

1685: Edict of Fontainebleau outlaws Protestantism in France. King Charles II dies

1687: Isaac Newton publishes Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.

1688–1689: Glorious Revolution starts with Dutch Republic invading England, England becomes a constitutional monarchy.

1688-1691: War of Two Kings in Ireland.

1688: Siege of Derry.

1688–1697: Grand Alliance sought to stop French expansion during Nine Years War.

1689: William ascends to throne over England, Scotland, & Ireland.

1689: John Locke publishes his first 'Letter Concerning Toleration'.

1689: Treaty of Nerchinsk established a border between Russia & China.

1689: Battle of Killiecrankie is fought between Jacobite & Williamite forces in Highland Perthshire

[edit] 1690s

1690: Battle of Boyne in Ireland.

1692: Salem witch trials in Massachusetts.

1693–1694: Famine in France kills 2 million.

1694: Bank of England is established.

1694: Mary II of England dies

1696–1697: Famine in Finland wipes out almost a third of population.[4]

1697: earliest known first-class cricket match took place in Sussex.

1699: Treaty of Karlowitz ends Great Turkish War.

1699: Thomas Savery demonstrates his first steam engine to Royal Society.

[edit] Significant people

Anne of Austria, Queen consort & regent of France (1601–1666)

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden (1594–1632)

Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan, lover of Louis XIV (1641–1707)

Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, second wife of Louis XIV (1635–1719)

Guru Teg Bahadur, 9th Sikh Guru (1621–1675)

Gabriel Bethlen, Hungarian prince of Transylvania (1580–1629)

Shivaji Bhonsle, Hindu king, 1st Maratha ruler, established Hindavi Swaraj (1630–1680)

Queen Christina of Sweden, high profile Catholic convert, matron of arts (1626–1689)

Charles I of England (1600–1649)

Charles II of England (1630–1685)

Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland & Ireland (1599–1658)

Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland & Ireland (1626–1712)

Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603)

Hugh O'Neill (Aodh Mór Ó Néill), King of Tyrone & 2nd Earl of Tyrone (1550–1616), an Irish prince whose armies inflicted major defeats upon English forces of Queen Elizabeth I during Nine Years War in Ulster.

Tokugawa Ieyasu, founder & first shogun of Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, (1543–1616)

James I of England (1566–1625)

James II of England (1633–1701)

Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1640–1705)

Louis XIV, King of France (1638–1715)

Mary II of England (1662–1694)

Cardinal Mazarin, French cardinal & politician of Italian origin (1602–1661)

André Le Nôtre, French landscape architect (1613–1700)

Peter Great, Russian tsar (1672–1725)

Philip IV of Spain, Spanish king (1605–1665)

Popé, Tewa religious leader, led Pueblo Revolt (ca. 1630 – ca. 1688)

Samarth Ramdas, Hindu saint (1608–1681)

Cardinal Richelieu, French cardinal, duke, & politician (1585–1642)

Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (1607–1676)

Jan III Sobieski, King of Poland (1629–1696)

Tessouat, Chief of Algonquin

Imre Thököly, prince of Transylvania, leader of anti-Hapsburg uprising in Hungary (1657–1705)

Sant Tukaram, Hindu saint (1600–1650)

Albrecht von Wallenstein, Catholic German general in Thirty Years' War (1583–1634)

William III of England (1650–1702), Stadtholder of main provinces of Republic of United Provinces & King of England

Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Republic of United Provinces – 1625–1672

[edit] Musicians & composers

Johann Christoph Bach, Composer & great-uncle of genius, (1642–1703)

John Blow, English composer

Johann Sebastian Bach, (1685–1750)

Francesco Cavalli, Venetian opera composer

Marc-Antoine Charpentier, French composer

Arcangelo Corelli, Italian composer

Jean-Baptiste Lully, Italian-born composer regarded as father of French opera(1632–1687)

Claudio Monteverdi, Italian composer of Renaissance & Baroque music(1567–1643)

Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), German composer

Henry Purcell, English composer (1659–1695)

Alessandro Scarlatti, Italian opera composer

Heinrich Schütz, German composer

Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe, French composer of chamber music (c. 1640–1700)

[edit] Visual artists

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Italian sculptor, architect (1598–1680)

Francesco Borromini, Italian sculptor, architect (1599–1667)

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Italian painter (1571–1610)

Frans Hals (1580–1666)

Jacob Jordaens, Flemish painter (1593–1678)

Georges de La Tour, French painter (1593–1652)

Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Spanish painter (1617–1682)

Nicolas Poussin, French classical painter (1594–1665)

José de Ribera, Lo Spagnoletto (1591–1652)

Rembrandt van Rijn, Dutch painter (1606–1669)

Peter Paul Rubens, Flemish painter, 1577–1640

Jan Steen (1626–1679)

Ruisdael (1628–1682)

Jiang Tingxi, Chinese painter, calligrapher, encyclopedist, foreign delegate to Japan (1669–1732)

Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez, Spanish painter (1599–1660)

Johannes Vermeer, Dutch Painter (1632–1675)

Francisco Zurbarán, Spanish Painter (1598–1664)

[edit] Literature

Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish dramatist (1600–1681)

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Spanish author (1574–1616)

Pierre Corneille, French dramatist (1606–1684)

Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux, French poet & critic (1636–1711)

Daniel Defoe, English writer, novelist (1659 or 1661–1731)

John Donne, English metaphysical poet (1572–1631)

John Dryden, English poet, literary critic, translator, & playwright (1631–1700)

Jean de La Fontaine, French poet (1621–1695)

Andreas Gryphius, German poet & dramatist (1616–1664)

Ben Jonson, English dramatist c.1572–1637)

John Milton, English author & poet (1608–1674)

Molière, French dramatist, actor, director (1622–1673)

Miyamoto Musashi, famous Samurai warrior in Japan, author of 'The Book of Five Rings,' a treatise on strategy & martial combat, poet, painter, (1584–1645)

Samuel Pepys, English civil servant & diarist (1633–1703)

Francisco de Quevedo, Spanish writer (1580–1645)

Jean Racine, French dramatist (1639–1699)

William Shakespeare, English author & poet (1564–1616)

Félix Lope de Vega, Spanish playwright & poet (1562–1635)

John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet (1647–1680)

[edit] Educators

Geoffrey Keating (Seathrún Céitinn), Irish historian (ca. 1569 – ca. 1644)

Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh, Irish historian & genealogist (d.1671)

Xu Xiake, Chinese geographer (1587–1641)

Song Yingxing, Chinese encyclopedist (1587–1666)

[edit] Exploration

Samuel De Champlain, French Explorer

Evliya Çelebi, Ottoman Explorer

Henry Hudson, (1570? – 1611) was an English sea explorer & navigator in early 17th century.

Abel Janszoon Tasman, Dutch seafarer & explorer (1603–1659)

Luis Váez de Torres, (c.1565–1607), Portuguese or Spanish Explorer. 16th-17th century exploration of Pacific for Spain.

[edit] Science & philosophy

Francis Bacon, English philosopher & politician (1561–1626)

Sir Thomas Browne, English author, philosopher & scientist (1605–1682)

Ismaël Bullialdus, French astronomer, (1605–1694)

Abraham Darby I, English Ironmaster, Introduced first coke-consuming blast furnace (1678–1717)

René Descartes, French philosopher & mathematician (1596–1650)

Pierre de Fermat, French lawyer & mathematician 1601–1665

Galileo Galilei, Italian natural philosopher (1564–1642)

Pierre Gassendi, (1592–1655), French philosopher, priest, scientist, astronomer/astrologer [1], & mathematician

William Harvey, medical doctor (1578–1657)

Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher & mathematician (1588–1679)

Christiaan Huygens, Dutch mathematician, physicist & astronomer (1629–1695)

Johannes Kepler, German astronomer (1571–1630)

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch scientist & first person to use a microscope to view bacteria (1632–1723)

Christopher Wren, English architect & scientist (1632–1723)

Gottfried Leibniz, German philosopher & mathematician (1646–1716)

John Locke, English philosopher (1632–1704)

Marin Mersenne, (1588–1648), French theologian, philosopher, mathematician & music theorist, referred to as father of acoustics.

Isaac Newton, English physicist & mathematician (1642–1727)

Blaise Pascal, French theologian, mathematician & physicist (1623–1662

Baruch Spinoza, Dutch philosopher (1632–1677)

Sir Anthony Weldon (1583–1648), English courtier & politician.

[edit] Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 17th century inventions

Major changes in philosophy & science take place, often characterized as Scientific revolution.

Banknotes reintroduced in Europe

Ice cream

Tea & coffee become popular in Europe.

Central Banking in France & modern Finance by Scottish economist John Law

Minarets, Jamé Mosque of Isfahan, Isfahan, Persia (Iran), are built.

1604: Supernova SN 1604 is observed in Milky Way

1605: Johannes Kepler starts investigating elliptical orbits of planets

1605: Johann Carolus of Germany publishes 'Relation', first newspaper

1608: Hans Lippershey constructs a refracting telescope, first for which sufficient evidence exists

1610: Orion Nebula is identified by Nicolas de Peiresc of France

1610: Galileo Galilei & Simon Marius observe Jupiter's Galilean moons

1611: King James Bible or 'Authorized Version' first published

c. 1612: first flintlock musket likely created for Louis XIII of France by gunsmith Marin de Bourgeoys

1614: John Napier introduces logarithm to simplify calculations

1616: Niccolò Zucchi describes experiments with a bronze parabolic mirror trying to make a reflecting telescope

1620: Cornelius Drebbei, funded by James I of England, builds first 'submarine' made of wood & greased leather

1623: first English dictionary, 'English Dictionarie' is published by Henry Cockeram, listing difficult words with definitions

1628: William Harvey publishes & elucidates his earlier discovery of circulatory system

1637: Dutch Bible published

1637: Teatro San Cassiano, first public opera house, opened in Venice

1637: Pierre de Fermat formulates his so-called Last Theorem, unsolved until 1995

1637: Although Chinese naval mines were earlier described in 14th century Huolongjing, Tian Gong Kai Wu book of Ming Dynasty scholar Song Yingxing describes naval mines wrapped in a lacquer bag & ignited by an ambusher pulling a rip cord on nearby shore that triggers a steel-wheel flint mechanism

1642: Blaise Pascal invents mechanical calculator called Pascal's calculator

1642: Mezzotint engraving introduces grey tones to printed images

1643: Evangelista Torricelli of Italy invents mercury barometer

1645: Giacomo Torelli of Venice, Italy invents first rotating stage

1651: Giovanni Riccioli renames Lunar mare

1656: Christiaan Huygens describes true shape of rings of Saturn

1657: Christiaan Huygens develops first functional pendulum clock based on learnings of Galileo Galilei

1659: Christiaan Huygens first to observe surface details of Mars

1662: Christopher Merret presents first paper on production of sparkling wine

1663: James Gregory publishes designs for a reflecting telescope

1669: first known operational reflecting telescope is built by Isaac Newton

1676: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek discovers Bacteria

1676: First measurement of speed of light

1679: Binary system developed by Gottfried Leibnitz

1684: Calculus independently developed by both Gottfried Leibnitz & Sir Issac Newton & used to formulate classical mechanics

18th

1700: 1700 Cascadia earthquake (magnitude 9) occurs off coast of Pacific Northwest; coast of Japan is struck by a tsunami.

1700–21: Russia supplants Sweden as dominant Baltic power after Great Northern War.

1701–1714: War of Spanish Succession was a conflict which involved most of Europe.[6]

1701–1702: Daily Courant & Norwich Post becomes first daily newspapers in England.

1702: Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka & then commit seppuku in Japan.

1702–1715: Camisard Rebellion in France.

1703: Saint Petersburg founded by Peter Great. Russian capital until 1918.

1703–1711: Rákóczi Uprising against Habsburg Monarchy.

1704: End of Japan's Genroku period.

1707: Act of Union passed merging Scottish & English Parliaments, thus establishing Kingdom of Great Britain.[7]

1707: After Aurangzeb's death, Mughal Empire enters a long decline & Maratha Empire slowly replaces it.

1707: Mount Fuji erupts in Japan.

1707: War of 27 years between Marathas & Mughals ends in India.

1708: Company of Merchants of London Trading into East Indies & English Company Trading to East Indies merged to form United Company of Merchants of England Trading to East Indies.

1708–1709: Famine kills one-third of East Prussia's population.

Great Frost of 1709: Coldest winter in 500 years.

1709: Hotaki dynasty founded in Afghanistan.

1709: Charles XII of Sweden flees to Ottoman Empire after Peter I of Russia defeats his army at Battle of Poltava.

[edit] 1710s

1710-1711: Ottoman Empire fights Russia in Russo-Turkish War

1713-1714: Tarabai establishes rival Maratha Empire government in Kolhapur against Chattrapati Shahu.

1714: Accession of George I, Elector of Hanover, to throne of Great Britain.

1715: First Jacobite rebellion breaks out

1715: Louis XIV dies, leaving France deep in debt.

1715: Pope Clement XI declares Catholicism & Confucianism incompatible.

1716: Establishment of Sikh Confederacy along India Pakistan border.

1718: City of New Orleans founded by French in North America

1718: Blackbeard (Edward Teach) is killed by Robert Maynard in a North Carolina inlet on inner side of Ocracoke Island

1718-1730: Tulip period of Ottoman Empire

1719: Spanish attempt to restart Jacobite rebellion fails.

[edit] 1720s

1720: South Sea Bubble

1720: Spanish military embarks on Villasur expedition from Mexico & travel into Great Plains

1720–1721: Great Plague of Marseille

1721: Robert Walpole became first Prime Minister of Great Britain (de facto).

1721: Treaty of Nystad signed, ending Great Northern War.

1721: Kangxi Emperor bans Christian Missionaries because of Pope Clement XI's decree.

1721: Peter I reforms Russian Orthodox Church

1722: Afghans conquered Iran, overthrowing Safavid Shah Soltan Hosein.

1722: Kangxi Emperor of China dies.

1722: Bartholomew Roberts is killed in a sea battle off African coast.

1722–23: Russo-Persian War

1722–1725: Controversy over William Wood's halfpence leads to Drapier's Letters & begins Irish economic independence from England movement.

1723: Slavery abolished in Russia. Peter Great converted household slaves into house serfs.[8]

1723–1730: "Great Disaster" – an invasion of Kazakh territories by Dzungars.

1725: Fulani nomads took complete control of Fuuta Jallon & set up first of many Fulani jihad states to come.[9]

1726: enormous Chinese encyclopedia Gujin Tushu Jicheng of over 100 million written Chinese characters in over 800,000 pages is printed in 60 different copies using copper-based Chinese movable type printing.

1727–1729: Anglo-Spanish War

1729–1735: Charles Wesley & John Wesley begin Methodism in England

[edit] 1730s

1730: Mahmud I takes over Ottoman Empire after Patrona Halil revolt, ending Tulip period.

1730–1760: First Great Awakening takes place in Great Britain & North America.

1732–1734: Crimean Tatar raids into Russia.[10]

1733–1738: War of Polish Succession.

1735–1739: Russo-Turkish War.

1735–1799: Qianlong Emperor of China oversaw a huge expansion in territory.

1736: Nader Shah assumed title of Shah of Persia & founded Afsharid dynasty. Ruled until his death in 1747.

1736: Qing Dynasty Chinese court painters recreate Zhang Zeduan's classic panoramic painting, Along River During Qingming Festival.

1738–1756: Famine across Sahel, half population of Timbuktu died.[11]

1738: Pope Clement XII issues Eminenti Apostolatus Specula prohibiting Catholics from becoming Freemasons.

1739: Nader Shah defeated Mughals at Battle of Karnal & sacked Delhi.

1739: Great Britain & Spain fight War of Jenkins' Ear in Caribbean.

[edit] 1740s

1740: Frederick Great comes to power in Prussia.

1740: British attempt to capture St. Augustine, Florida but lose to Spanish during Siege of St. Augustine.

1740–1741: Famine in Ireland killed ten per cent of population.

1740–1748: War of Austrian Succession

1741: Russians began settling Aleutian Islands.

1741: Pope Benedict XIV issues Immensa Pastorum principis against slavery.

1744: First Saudi State is founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud.[13]

1744: French attempt to restart Jacobite rebellion fails

1744–1748: First Carnatic War fought between British, French, Marathas, & Mysore in India.

1745: Second Jacobite Rebellion began by Charles Edward Stuart in Scotland.

1747: Ahmed Shah Durrani founded Durrani Empire in modern day Afghanistan.

1748: Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle ends War of Austrian Succession & First Carnatic War.

1748–1754: Second Carnatic War fought between British, French, Marathas, & Mysore in India

[edit] 1750s

1750: Peak of Little Ice Age

1754: Treaty of Pondicherry ends Second Carnatic War & recognizes Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah as Nawab of Carnatic.

1754–1763, French & Indian War, Fought in U.S. & Canada mostly between French & French allies & English & English allies. North American chapter of Seven Years' War.

1755: Lisbon earthquake

1755–1763: Great Upheaval, forced population transfer of French Acadian population from Nova Scotia & New Brunswick

1756–1763: Seven Years' War fought among European powers in various theaters around world.

1756–1763: Third Carnatic War fought between British, French, Marathas, & Mysore in India.

1757: Battle of Plassey signaled beginning of formal British rule in India after years of commercial activity under auspices of East India Company.

1758: British colonel James Wolfe issues Wolfe's Manifesto

1759: French commander Louis-Joseph de Montcalm & British commander James Wolfe die during Battle of Plains of Abraham.

[edit] 1760s

1760: George III became King of Britain.

1760: Zand dynasty founded in Iran

1761: Maratha Empire defeated at Battle of Panipat

1762–1796: Reign of Catherine Great of Russia.

1763: Treaty of Paris ends Seven Years' War & Third Carnatic War

1763: Kingdom of Mysore conquers Kingdom of Keladi

1765: Stamp Act introduced into American colonies by UK Parliament.

1766–1799: Anglo-Mysore Wars

1767: Burmese conquered Ayutthaya kingdom.

1768: Gurkhas conquered Nepal.

1768–1774: Russo-Turkish War

1769: Spanish missionaries established first of 21 missions in California.

1769–1770: James Cook explores & maps New Zealand & Australia

1769–1773: Bengal famine of 1770 killed one third of Bengal population.

[edit] 1770s

1770: James Cook claims East Coast of Australia (New South Wales) for Great Britain.

1770–1771: Famine in Czech lands killed hundreds of thousands.

1771: Plague Riot in Moscow.

1771: Richard Arkwright & his partners build world's first water-powered mill at Cromford.

1772: Reformer Johann Friedrich Struensee executed in Denmark.

1772: Gustav III of Sweden stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.

1772: Partitions of Poland marks end of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

1772–1779: Maratha Empire fights Britain & Raghunathrao's forces during First Anglo-Maratha War

1772–1795: Partitions of Poland ended Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth & erased Poland from map for 123 years.

1773–1775: Pugachev's Rebellion was largest peasant revolt in Russia's history.

1773: East India Company starts operations in Bengal to smuggle Opium into China.

1775 John Harrison H4 & Larcum Kendall K1 Marine chronometers are used to measure longitude by James Cook on his Second voyage (1772–1775)

1775–1782: First Anglo-Maratha War

1775–1783: American Revolutionary War

1776: Illuminati founded by Adam Weishaupt

1776: United States Declaration of Independence adopted by Continental Congress in Philadelphia.

1778: Tây Sơn Dynasty established in Vietnam.

1778: James Cook becomes first European on Hawaiian Islands.

1779–1879: Xhosa Wars between British & Boer settlers & Xhosas in South African Republic

[edit] 1780s

1780: Outbreak of indigenous rebellion led by Túpac Amaru II in Peru.

1781: Spanish settlers founded Los Angeles.

1781–1785: Serfdom abolished in Austrian monarchy (first step; second step in 1848)

1783: Famine in Iceland caused by eruption of Laki volcano.

1783: Russian Empire annexed Crimean Khanate.

1783 Treaty of Paris formally ends American War of Independence.

1785–1791: Imam Sheikh Mansur, a Chechen warrior & Muslim mystic, led a coalition of Muslim Caucasian tribes from throughout Caucasus in a holy war against Russian invaders.[14]

1785–1795: Northwest Indian War between United States & Native Americans

1787: United States Constitution was written in Philadelphia & submitted to states for ratification.

1787: Freed slaves from London founded Freetown in present-day Sierra Leone.

1787: Kansei Reforms instituted in Japan by Matsudaira Sadanobu.

1787–1792: Russo-Turkish War

1788 First French Quaker community established in Congénies

1788: First European settlement established in Australia at Sydney.

1788: New Hampshire ratifies United States Constitution as 9th state, & by terms of Article VII it is in effect.

1788–1789 Inconfidência Mineira, conspiracy against colonial authorities in Brazil.

1789: George Washington elected President of United States. Served until 1797.

1789: Great Britain & Spain dispute Nootka Sound during Nootka Crisis.

1789–1799: French Revolution

[edit] 1790s

1790: United States of Belgium proclaimed following Brabant Revolution.

1790: Establishment of Polish-Prussian Pact

1791 Constitutional Act (Or Canada Act) creates two provinces of Upper & Lower Canada in British North America.

1791–1795: George Vancouver explores world during Vancouver Expedition.

1791–1804: Haitian Revolution

1792–1815: Great French War started as French Revolutionary Wars which lead into Napoleonic Wars.

1792: New York Stock & Exchange Board founded.

1792: King Gustav III of Sweden was assassinated by a conspiracy of noblemen.

1793: Upper Canada bans slavery.

1793: largest yellow fever epidemic in American history killed as many as 5,000 people in Philadelphia—roughly 10% of population.[15]

1793–1796: Revolt in Vendée against French Republic at time of Revolution.

1794: Polish revolt

1794: Jay's Treaty concluded between Great Britain & United States, by which Western outposts in Great Lakes are returned to U.S., & commerce between two countries is regulated.

1794: Qajar dynasty founded in Iran after replacing Zand dynasty.

1795: Mohammad Khan Qajar razes Tbilisi to ground.

1795: Pinckney's Treaty between United States & Spain granted Mississippi Territory to US.

1795: Marseillaise officially adopted as French national anthem.

1795: Kamehameha I of Island of Hawaii defeats Oahuans at Battle of Nu'uanu.

1796: Edward Jenner administers first smallpox vaccination. Smallpox killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during 18th century (including five reigning monarchs).[16]

1796: Battle of Montenotte. Engagement in War of First Coalition. Napoleon Bonaparte's first victory as an army commander.

1796: British ejected Dutch from Ceylon.

1796: Mungo Park, backed by African Association, is first European to set eyes on Niger River in Africa.

1796–1804: White Lotus Rebellion against Manchu Dynasty in China.

1797: Napoleon's invasion & partition of Republic of Venice ended over 1,000 years of independence for Serene Republic.

1798: Irish Rebellion failed to overthrow British rule in Ireland.

1798–1800: Quasi-War between United States & France.

1799: Napoleon staged a coup d'état & became First Consul of France.

1799: Dutch East India Company is dissolved.

1799: assassination of 14th Tu'i Kanokupolu, Tukuʻaho, plunges Tonga into half a century of civil war.

[edit] Significant people

[edit] World leaders, politicians, military

John Adams, American statesman

Samuel Adams, American statesman

Ahmad Shah Abdali, Afghan King

Ahmed III, Sultan of Ottoman Empire

Hyder Ali, Ruler of Mysore

Ethan Allen, American Revolutionary Army

Anne, Queen of Great Britain

Marie Antoinette, Austrian-born Queen of France

Augustus III, Elector of Saxony, King of Poland, & Grand Duke of Lithuania

Aurangzeb, Mughal Emperor

Boromakot, King of Ayutthaya

Boromaracha V, King of Ayutthaya

Aaron Burr, American statesman

William Cavendish, Anglo-Irish politician

John Carteret, Anglo-Irish politician

Catherine Great, Empress of Russia

Charles III, King of Spain, Naples, & Sicily

Charles VI, Emperor of Holy Roman Empire, King of Bohemia & Hungary

Charles XII, King of Sweden, Goths & Wends;

Charlotte Corday, French revolutionary

Georges Danton, French revolutionary leader

Farrukhsiyar, Emperor of Mughal

Ferdinand I, King of Naples, Sicily, & Two Sicilies

Benjamin Franklin, American leader, scientist & statesman

Juan Francisco, Spanish naval officer & explorer

Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden, Goths & Wends

Frederick Great, King of Prussia

George I, King of Great Britain & Ireland

George II, King of Great Britain & Ireland

George III, King of Great Britain & Ireland

Robert Gray, American revolutionary, merchant, & explorer

Gustav III, King of Sweden, Goths & Wends

Gyeongjong, King of Joseon Dynasty

Nathan Hale, American patriot, executed for espionage by British

Abdul Hamid I, Sultan of Ottoman Empire

Alexander Hamilton, American statesman

Patrick Henry, American statesman

Emperor Higashiyama, Emperor of Japan

John Jay, American statesman

Thomas Jefferson, American statesman

Jeongjo, King of Joseon Dynasty

John Paul Jones, American naval commander

Joseph I, King of Portugal

Joseph II, Austrian Emperor

Kangxi Emperor, Chinese Emperor

Karim Khan, Shah of Iran & King of Persia

Marquis de Lafayette, Continental Army officer

Louis XIV, King of France

Louis XV, King of France

Louis XVI, King of France

Louis XVII, imprisoned King of France, never ruled

James Madison, American statesman

Madhavrao I, Peshwa/Prime Minister of Maratha Empire

Madhavrao I Scindia, Marathan leader

Mahmud I, Sultan of Ottoman Empire

Alessandro Malaspina, Spanish explorer

George Mason, American statesman

Michikinikwa, Miami chief & warrior

José Moñino y Redondo, Spanish statesman

Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, French officer

Mustafa III, Sultan of Ottoman Empire

Nadir Shah, King of Persia

Nakamikado, Emperor of Japan

Horatio Nelson, British admiral

Nanasaheb, Peshwa/Prime Minister of Maratha Empire

Shivappa Nayaka, King of Keladi Nayaka

Osman III, Sultan of Ottaman Empire

Peter I (Peter Great), Tsar of Russia

Philip V, King of Spain

Pontiac, Ottawa chief & warrior

Qianlong, Emperor of China

Rajaram II of Satara, Monarch of Maratha Confederacy

Francis II Rákóczi, Prince of Hungary & Transylvania, revolutionary leader

Tadeusz Rejtan, Polish politician

Paul Revere, American revolutionary leader & silversmith

Maximilien Robespierre, French revolutionary leader

Betsy Ross, American flag maker

Shah Rukh of Persia, King of Persia.

John Russell, Anglo-Irish politician

Lionel Sackville, Anglo-Irish politician

Sebastião de Melo, Prime Minister of Portugal

Chattrapati Shahu, Emperor of Maratha Empire

Selim III, Sultan of Ottoman Empire

Charles Edward Stuart, English Jacobite exile

Sukjong, King of Joseon Dynasty

Alexander Suvorov, Russian military leader

Maria Theresa, Austrian Empress

Tokugawa Ieharu, Japanese Shogun

Tokugawa Ienobu, Japanese Shogun

Tokugawa Ieshige, Japanese Shogun

Tokugawa Ietsugu, Japanese Shogun

Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, Japanese Shogun

Tokugawa Yoshimune, Japanese Shogun

Toussaint L'Ouverture, Haitian revolutionary leader

Túpac Amaru II, Peruvian revolutionary

George Vancouver, British Captain & explorer

Robert Walpole, Prime Minister of Great Britain

George Washington, American general & first President of United States

James Wolfe, British officer

Yeongjo, King of Joseon Dynasty

[edit] Show business, theatre, entertainers

Barton Booth, actor

Colley Cibber, actor, poet, playwright

Thomas Doggett, actor

David Garrick, actor

John Gay, English dramatist & poet

Charles Johnson, English playwright

Charles Macklin, actor

Chikamatsu Monzaemon, Japanese dramatist, playwright

John O'Keeffee, Irish playwright

Anne Oldfield, English actress

Hannah Pritchard, English actress

Hester Santlow, English actress, ballerina, dancer

Kong Shangren, Chinese dramatist, poet

Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish playwright

John Small, English cricketer

Edward "Lumpy" Stevens, English cricketer

Robert Wilks, English actor

Wang Yun, Chinese playwright, poet

[edit] Musicians, composers

Tomaso Albinoni, Italian composer

Samuel Arnold, English composer & musician

Nidhu Babu, Indian & Bengali musician & composer

Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer

Charles Burney, English musician & music historian

François Couperin, French composer

William Cowper, English hymnist & poet

Dede Efendi, Turkish/Ottoman composer

Christoph Willibald Gluck, German composer

Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist, composer, & music theorist.

George Frideric Handel, German-English composer

Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer

Antoine de Lhoyer, French composer & guitarist

Hampartsoum Limondjian, Armenian/Ottoman composer

Kali Mirza, Bengali composer

Leopold Mozart, Austrian composer

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer

Johann Pachelbel, German composer, teacher

François-André Danican Philidor, French composer & chess master

Jean-Philippe Rameau, French composer

Bharatchandra Ray, Bengali composer, musician, & poet

Sadarang, Hindustani composer

Antonio Salieri, Venetian composer

Domenico Scarlatti, Italian composer.

Antonio Stradivari, Italian violin maker

Antonio Vivaldi, Italian composer

Isaac Watts, English hymnist

[edit] Visual artists, painters, sculptors, printmakers, architects

Bernardo Bellotto, Italian painter

Michel Benoist, French painter, architect, missionary in China

William Blake, English artist & poet

Edmé Bouchardon, French sculptor

François Boucher, French painter

Canaletto, Italian painter

Giuseppe Castiglione, Italian painter, architect, missionary in China

Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, French painter

Leonardo Coccorante, Italian painter

John Singleton Copley, American painter

Jacques-Louis David, French painter

Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Austrian architect

Étienne Maurice Falconet, French sculptor

Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter

Thomas Gainsborough, English painter

Francisco de Goya, Spanish painter

Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter

Giuseppe Grisoni, Italian painter

Francesco Guardi, Italian painter

Jacob Philipp Hackert, German painter

Suzuki Harunobu, Japanese woodblock printer

Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt, Austrian-Italian architect

William Hogarth, English painter & engraver

Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff, German painter & architect

Mikhail Ivanovich Kozlovsky, Russian sculptor

Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne, French sculptor, student of his father

Jean-Louis Lemoyne, French sculptor

Jean-Étienne Liotard, Swiss painter

Robert Le Lorrain, French sculptor

Yuan Mei, Chinese painter, poet, essayist

Antoine Ignace Melling, French-German painter, architect

Louis Montoyer, Belgian architect

Giovanni Paolo Panini, Italian painter

Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Italian painter

Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, German architect (Saxony)

Gai Qi, Chinese painter, poet

Bartolomeo Rastrelli, Italian-born Russian architect

Joshua Reynolds, English painter

Gilbert Stuart, American painter

Nishikawa Sukenobu, Japanese printmaker, teacher

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Venetian painter

Jiang Tingxi, Chinese artist & scholar

Kitagawa Utamaro, Japanese printmaker & painter

Luigi Vanvitelli, Italian architect

Antoine Watteau, French painter

[edit] Writers, poets

Jane Austen, English writer

Anna Laetitia Barbauld, English Poet, essayist, & children's author

Pierre Beaumarchais, French writer

Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux, French poet & literary critic

James Boswell, Scottish biographer

Frances Burney, English novelist

Robert Burns, Scottish poet

Giacomo Casanova, Venetian adventurer, writer & womanizer

Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, French writer

Daniel Defoe, English novelist & journalist

Liang Desheng, Chinese poet & writer

Maria Edgeworth, Anglo-Irish novelist

Henry Fielding, English novelist

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer

Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright

Oliver Goldsmith, Anglo-Irish writer, poet, children's writer, & playwright

Carlo Gozzi, Italian dramatist

Thomas Gray, English poet, scholar, & educator

Eliza Haywood, English writer

Wu Jingzi, Chinese writer

Samuel Johnson, British writer, lexicographer, poet, & literary critic

Ferenc Kazinczy, Hungarian writer

Charlotte Lennox, English novelist & poet

Matthew Lewis, English novelist & playwright

Sadhak Kamalakanta, Indian poet

Henry Mackenzie, Scottish novelist

Jean-Paul Marat, French journalist

Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, Spanish writer

Yuan Mei, Chinese poet, scholar & artist

Honoré Mirabeau, French writer & politician

John Newbery, English children's literature publisher

Alexander Pope, English poet

Ann Radcliffe, English novelist

Samuel Richardson, English novelist

Li Ruzhen, Chinese novelist

Marquis de Sade, French writer & philosopher

Ramprasad Sen, Bengali poet & singer

Friedrich Schiller, German writer

Walter Scott, Scottish novelest & poet

Christopher Smart, English poet & actor

Robert Southey, English poet & biographer

Hester Thrale, English memoirist

Charlotte Turner Smith, English writer

Pu Songling, Chinese short story writer

Laurence Sterne, Anglo-Irish writer

Jonathan Swift, Anglo-Irish satirist & Church of Ireland Dean

Ueda Akinari, Japanese writer

Voltaire, French writer & philosopher

Horace Walpole, English writer & politician

Mary Wollstonecraft, British writer & feminist

Cao Xueqin, Chinese writer

[edit] Philosophers, theologians

Arai Hakuseki, Japanese scholar, writer & politician

Cesare Beccaria, Italian philosopher & politician

Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher & reformer

George Berkeley, Irish empiricist philosopher

Edmund Burke, British statesman & philosopher

Frederick Cornwallis, Archbishop of Canterbury

Erasmus Darwin, English philosopher, poet & scientist

Denis Diderot, French writer & philosopher

William Godwin, English philosopher & novelist

Aaron Halle-Wolfssohn, German writer, Jewish theologian, translator, & professor

Johann Gottfried Herder, German philosopher, writer, & critic

Thomas Herring, Archbishop of Canterbury

David Hume, Scottish philosopher

Matthew Hutton, Archbishop of Canterbury

Immanuel Kant, German philosopher

Kamo no Mabuchi, Japanese philosopher

William Law, English theologian

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German philosopher & writer

Alphonsus Liguori, Italian bishop, founder of Redemptorists, Saint

Joseph de Maistre, Italian philosopher & diplomat

Moses Mendelssohn, German philosopher

Charles de Secondat (Montesquieu), French thinker

John Moore, Archbishop of Canterbury

Motoori Norinaga, Japanese philosopher & scholar

Thomas Paine, English philosopher

Elihu Palmer, American deist

Thomas Percy, English bishop & editor

Joseph Perl, German writer, Jewish theologian, & educator

John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, French writer & philosopher

Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury

Sugita Genpaku, Japanese scholar & translator

Emanuel Swedenborg, Swedish scientist, thinker & mystic

Thomas Tenison, Archbishop of Canterbury

Christian Thomasius, German philosopher & jurist

Baal Shem Tov, Ukrainian rabbi

Giambattista Vico, Italian philosopher

Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, Arab Islamic theologian & founder of Wahhabism

William Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury

John Wesley, English theologian, founder of Methodism

Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, German religious writer & bishop

[edit] Scientists, researchers

Roger Joseph Boscovich, physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, diplomat, poet, & Jesuit

Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian mathematician[17]

Jean le Rond d'Alembert, French mathematician, physicist & encyclopedist

Joseph Banks, English botanist

Laura Bassi, Italian scientist, first European female college teacher[17]

Daniel Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician & physicist

Anders Celsius, Swedish astronomer

Alexis Clairault, French mathematician

James Cook, English navigator, explorer & cartographer

Eugenio Espejo, Ecuadorian scientist

Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, German physicist & engineer

George Fordyce, Scottish physician & chemist

Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician, physicist & astronomer

Edward Gibbon, English historian

Edward Jenner, English inventor of vaccination

William Jones, English philologist

Joseph Louis Lagrange, Italian-French mathematician & physicist

Pierre Simon Laplace, French physicist & mathematician

Antoine Lavoisier, French chemist, considered father of modern chemistry

John Law, Scottish economist

Pan Lei, Chinese scholar & mathematician

Adrien-Marie Legendre, French mathematician

Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné), Swedish biologist

Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian scientist

Edmond Malone, Irish literary scholar

Thomas Malthus, English economist

Joseph Priestley, dissenting minister & chemist

John Smeaton, civil engineer & physicist

Adam Smith, Scottish economist & philosopher

Antonio de Ulloa, Spanish scientist & explorer

James Watt, Scottish scientist & inventor

John Whitehurst, English geologist

Dai Zhen, Chinese mathematician, geographer, phonologist & philosopher

Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Swedish chemist (discovered oxygen)

Henry Cavendish, chemist (recognized Hydrogen as its own elemental substance)

Joseph Black, Scottish chemist (discovered carbon dioxide)

[edit] Pirates

Edward Teach (Blackbeard)

John Rackham (Calico Jack)

Anne Bonny

[edit] Inventions, discoveries, introductions

1709: first piano was built by Bartolomeo Cristofori

1711: Tuning fork invented by John Shore

1712: Steam Engine invented by Thomas Newcomen

1714: Mercury thermometer by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit

1717: diving bell was successfully tested by Edmond Halley, sustainable to a depth of 55 ft

c. 1730: octant navigational tool was developed by John Hadley in England, & Thomas Godfrey in America

1733: Flying shuttle invented by John Kay

1736: Europeans discovered rubber – discovery was made by Charles-Marie de la Condamine while on expedition in South America. It was named in 1770 by Joseph Priestly

c. 1740: Modern steel was developed by Benjamin Huntsman

1741: Vitus Bering discovered Alaska

1745: Leyden jar invented by Ewald Georg von Kleist was first electrical capacitor

1752: Lightning rod invented by Benjamin Franklin

1755: tallest wooden Bodhisattva statue in world is erected at Puning Temple, Chengde, China.

1764: Spinning Jenny created by James Hargreaves brought on Industrial Revolution

1765: James Watt enhances Newcomen's steam engine, allowing new steel technologies

1761: problem of Longitude was finally resolved by fourth chronometer of John Harrison

1768–1779: James Cook mapped boundaries of Pacific Ocean & discovered many Pacific Islands

1771: enormous Putuo Zongcheng Temple complex of Chengde, China is completed

1773–1782: Qing Dynasty huge literary compilation Siku Quanshu

1774: Joseph Priestley discovers "dephlogisticated air" Oxygen

1775: Joseph Priestley first synthesis of "phlogisticated nitrous air" Nitrous Oxide "laughing gas"

1776: Steamboat invented by Claude de Jouffroy

1777: Circular saw invented by Samuel Miller

1779: Photosynthesis was first discovered by Jan Ingenhousz

1784: Bifocals invented by Benjamin Franklin

1784: Oil lamp invented by Aimé Argand[18]

1785: Power loom invented by Edmund Cartwright

1785: Automatic flour mill invented by Oliver Evans

1786: Threshing machine invented by Andrew Meikle

1789: Antoine Lavoisier discovers law of conservation of mass, basis for chemistry, & begins modern chemistry

1798: Edward Jenner publishes a treatise about smallpox vaccination

1798: Lithographic printing process invented by Alois Senefelder[19]

1799: Rosetta stone discovered by Napoleon's troops

[edit] Literary & philosophical achievements

1703: Love Suicides at Sonezaki by Chikamatsu first performed

1704–1717: One Thousand & One Nights translated into French by Antoine Galland. work becomes immensely popular throughout Europe.

1704: A Tale of a Tub by Jonathan Swift first published

1712: Rape of Lock by Alexander Pope (publication of first version)

1719: Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe

1725: New Science by Giambattista Vico

1726: Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift

1728: Dunciad by Alexander Pope (publication of first version)

1744: A Little Pretty Pocket-Book becomes one of first books marketed for children

1748: Chushingura (The Treasury of Loyal Retainers), popular Japanese puppet play, composed

1748: Clarissa by Samuel Richardson

1749: History of Tom Jones, a Foundling by Henry Fielding

1751: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray published

1751–1785: French Encyclopédie

1755: A Dictionary of English Language by Samuel Johnson

1759: Candide by Voltaire

1759: Theory of Moral Sentiments by Adam Smith

1759–1767: Tristram Shandy by Laurence Sterne

1762: Emile: or, On Education by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

1762: Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

1774: Sorrows of Young Werther by Goethe first published

1776: Ugetsu monogatari (Tales of Moonlight & Rain) by Ueda Akinari

1776: Wealth of Nations, foundation of modern theory of economy, was published by Adam Smith

1776–1789: History of Decline & Fall of Roman Empire was published by Edward Gibbon

1779: Amazing Grace published by John Newton

1779–1782: Lives of Most Eminent English Poets by Samuel Johnson

1781: Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant (publication of first edition)

1781: Robbers by Friedrich Schiller first published

1782: Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos

1786: Poems, Chiefly in Scottish Dialect by Robert Burns

1787–1788: Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, & James Madison

1788: Critique of Practical Reason by Immanuel Kant

1789: Songs of Innocence by William Blake

1790: Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow by Alexander Radishchev

1790: Reflections on Revolution in France by Edmund Burke

1791: Rights of Man by Thomas Paine

1792: Poor Liza by Nikolai Karamzin

1794: Songs of Experience by William Blake

1798: Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth & Samuel Taylor Coleridge

1798: An Essay on Principle of Population published by Thomas Malthus

(mid-18th century): Dream of Red Chamber (authorship attributed to Cao Xueqin), one of most famous Chinese novels

[edit] Musical works

1711: Rinaldo, Handel's first opera for London stage, premiered

1721: Brandenburg concertos by J.S. Bach

1723: Four Seasons, violin concertos by Antonio Vivaldi, composed

1724: St John Passion by J.S. Bach

1727: St Matthew Passion composed by J.S. Bach

1733: Hippolyte et Aricie, first opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau

1741: Goldberg Variations for harpsichord published by Bach

1742: Messiah, oratorio by Handel premiered in Dublin

1749: Mass in B Minor by J.S. Bach assembled in current form

1751: Art of Fugue by J.S. Bach

1762: Orfeo ed Euridice, first "reform opera" by Gluck, performed in Vienna

1786: Marriage of Figaro, opera by Mozart

1787: Don Giovanni, opera by Mozart

1788: Jupiter Symphony (Symphony No.41) composed by Mozart

1791: Magic Flute, opera by Mozart

1791–1795: London symphonies by Haydn

1798: Creation, oratorio by Haydn first performed

19th

1800: Company of Surgeons are awarded their Royal Charter & became Royal College of Surgeons of England.

1800: inception of Second Great Awakening for United States.

1801: Thomas Jefferson elected President of United States by United States House of Representatives, following a tie in Electoral College (United States)

1801: Kingdom of Great Britain & Kingdom of Ireland merge to form United Kingdom.

1801: Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab.

1801–15: Barbary War between United States & Barbary States of North Africa

1803: United States buys out France's territorial claims in North America via Louisiana Purchase. This begins U.S.'s westward expansion to Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing & conquering land from Mexico, Britain, & Native Americans.

1803: Wahhabis of First Saudi State capture Mecca & Medina.

1803: War breaks out between Britain & France; this is considered by some to be beginning of Napoleonic Wars.

1804: Haiti gains independence from France & becomes first black republic.

1804: Austrian Empire founded by Francis I.

1804: Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of French.

1804–10: Fulani Jihad in Nigeria.

1804–15: Serbian revolution erupts against Ottoman rule. Suzerainty of Serbia recognized in 1817.

1805: Battle of Trafalgar eliminates French & Spanish naval fleets & allows for British dominance of seas, a major factor for success of British Empire later in century.

1805: Napoleon decisively defeats a Austrian-Russian army at Battle of Austerlitz.

1805–48: Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt.

1806: Holy Roman Empire dissolved as a consequence of Treaty of Pressburg.

1807: Britain declares Slave Trade illegal.

1808–09: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in Finnish War.

1808–14: Spanish guerrillas fight in Peninsular War.

1809: Napoleon strips Teutonic Knights of their last holdings in Bad Mergentheim.

[edit] 1810s

1810: University of Berlin is founded. Among its students & faculty are Hegel, Marx, & Bismarck. German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around world (see History of European research universities).

1810: Grito de Dolores begins Mexican War of Independence.

1810s–20s: Most of Latin American colonies free themselves from Spanish & Portuguese Empires after Latin American wars of independence.

1812: French invasion of Russia is a turning point in Napoleonic Wars.

1812–15: War of 1812 between United States & United Kingdom

1813–1907: contest between British Empire & Imperial Russia for control of Central Asia is referred to as Great Game.

1814-16: Anglo-Nepalese War between Nepal(Gurkha Empire) & British Empire.

1815: Congress of Vienna redraws European map. Concert of Europe attempts to preserve this settlement, but it fails to stem tide of liberalism & nationalism that sweeps over continent.

1815: Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo brings a conclusion to Napoleonic Wars & marks beginning of a Pax Britannica which lasts until 1870.

1816: Year Without a Summer: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout Northern Hemisphere, likely caused by 1815 explosion of Mount Tambora.

1816–28: Shaka's Zulu Kingdom becomes largest in Southern Africa.

1817: Principality of Serbia becomes suzerain from Ottoman Empire. Officially independent in 1867.

1819: modern city of Singapore is established by British East India Company.

1819: Théodore Géricault paints his masterpiece Raft of Medusa, & exhibits it in French Salon of 1819 at Louvre.

[edit] 1820s

1820: Missouri Compromise

1820: Liberia founded by American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.

1821: Mexico gains independence from Spain with Treaty of Córdoba.

1821: Peru declares its independence from Spain.

1822–23: First Mexican Empire, as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor Agustín I of Mexico.

1821–30: Greece becomes first country to break away from Ottoman Empire after Greek War of Independence.

1822: Prince Pedro of Portugal proclaimed Brazilian independence on September 7. On December 1, he was crowned as Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil.

1823–87: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called Myanmar) after three Anglo-Burmese Wars.

1825: Erie Canal opened connecting Great Lakes to Atlantic Ocean.

1826–28: After final Russo-Persian War, Persian Empire took back territory lost to Russia from previous war.

1827: Death of William Blake

1825–28: Argentina-Brazil War results in independence of Uruguay.

[edit] 1830s

1830: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is established on April 6, 1830.

1830: July Revolution in France.

1830: Belgian Revolution in United Kingdom of Netherlands led to creation of Belgium.

1830: Greater Colombia dissolved & nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, & Venezuela took its place.

1830 November Uprising in Poland against Russia.

1831: France invades & occupies Algeria.

1831-33: Egyptian–Ottoman War.

1832: British Parliament passes Great Reform Act.

1833: Slavery Abolition Act bans slavery throughout British Empire.

1833–76: Carlist Wars in Spain.

1834: German Customs Union is formed.

1834: Spanish Inquisition officially ends.

1834–59: Imam Shamil's rebellion in Russian-occupied Caucasus.

1835–36: Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in short-lived Republic of Texas.

1836: Battle of Alamo.

1837–1838: Rebellions of 1837 in Canada.

1837–1901: Queen Victoria's reign is considered apex of British Empire & is referred to as Victorian era.

1838–40: Civil war in Federal Republic of Central America led to foundings of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, & Costa Rica.

1839–51: Uruguayan Civil War

1839–60: After two Opium Wars, France, United Kingdom, United States & Russia gained many concessions from China resulting in decline of Qing Dynasty.

[edit] 1840s

1840: New Zealand is founded, as Treaty of Waitangi is signed by Māori & British.

1844: Persian Prophet Báb announces his revelation on May 23, founding Bábísm. He announced to world of coming of "He whom God shall make manifest". He is considered forerunner of Bahá'u'lláh, founder of Bahá'í Faith.

1844: First publicly funded telegraph line in world—between Baltimore & Washington—sends demonstration message on May 24, ushering in age of telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)

1844: Millerite movement awaits Second Advent of Jesus Christ on October 22. Christ's non-appearance becomes known as Great Disappointment.

1844: Dominican War of Independence from Haiti.

1845: Unification of Kingdom of Tonga under Tāufaʻāhau (King George Tupou I)

1845-1846: First Anglo-Sikh War

1845–72: New Zealand Land Wars

1845–49: Irish Potato Famine led to Irish diaspora.

1846–48: Mexican-American War leads to Mexico's cession of much of modern-day Southwestern United States.

1846–47: Mormon migration to Utah.

1847–1901: Caste War of Yucatán.

1848-1849: Second Anglo-Sikh War

1848: Communist Manifesto published.

1848: Revolutions of 1848 in Europe

1848: Seneca Falls Convention is first women's rights convention in United States & leads to battle for suffrage & women's legal rights.

1848–58: California Gold Rush

[edit] 1850s

1850: Little Ice Age ends around this time.

1851: Great Exhibition in London was world's first international Expo or World's Fair.

1851–52: Platine War ends & Empire of Brazil has hegemony over South America.

1851–60s: Victorian gold rush in Australia

1851–64: Taiping Rebellion in China is bloodiest conflict of century.

1853–56: Crimean War between France, United Kingdom, Ottoman Empire & Russia

1854: Convention of Kanagawa formally ends Japan's policy of isolation.

1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass produced.

1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania

1857–58: Indian Rebellion of 1857

1859: Origin of Species published.

[edit] 1860s

1861–65: American Civil War between Union & seceding Confederacy

1861: Russia abolishes serfdom.

1861–67: French intervention in Mexico & creation of Second Mexican Empire, ruled by Maximilian I of Mexico & his consort Carlota of Mexico.

1862–1877: Muslim Rebellion in northwest China.

1863: Bahá'u'lláh declares His station as "He whom God shall make manifest". This date is celebrated in Bahá'í Faith as Festival of Ridván.

1863: Formation of International Red Cross is followed by adoption of First Geneva Convention in 1864.

1863–1865: Polish uprising against Russian Empire.

1864–66: Chincha Islands War was an attempt by Spain to regain its South American colonies.

1864–70: War of Triple Alliance ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion & destroys much of Paraguayan population.

1865–77: Reconstruction in United States; Slavery is banned in United States by Thirteenth Amendment to United States Constitution.

1865-April 9, 1865 Robert E. Lee surrenders Army of Northern Virginia (26,765 troops) to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, effectively ending American Civil War.

1865-April 14, 1865, United States President Abraham Lincoln is assassinated while attending a performance at Ford's Theater, Washington, D.C.. He dies approximately nine hours after being shot on April 15, 1865.

1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858.

1866: Austro-Prussian War results in dissolution of German Confederation & creation of North German Confederation & Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.

1866–1868: Famine in Finland.

1866–69: After Meiji Restoration, Japan embarks on a program of rapid modernization.

1867: United States purchased Alaska from Russia.

1867: Canadian Confederation formed.

1867: Principality of Serbia passes a Constitution which defines its independence from Ottoman Empire. International recognition followed in 1878.

1868; Expatriation Act is approved by Congress, guaranteeing U.S. citizens right to expatriate. Coupled with 14th Amendment to U.S. Constitution approved only one day later, Expatriation Act allows U.S. citizens to renounce federal citizenship in order to regain Constitutional rights ceded by U.S. citizens as defined by 14th Amendment.

1868; 14th Amendment to U.S. Constitution was approved.

1869: First Transcontinental Railroad completed in United States on May 10.

1869: Suez Canal opens linking Mediterranean to Red Sea.

[edit] 1870s

1870–71: Franco-Prussian War results in unifications of Germany & Italy, collapse of Second French Empire, breakdown of Pax Britannica, & emergence of a New Imperialism.

1871–1872: Famine in Persia is believed to have caused death of 2 million.

1871–1914: Second Industrial Revolution

1870s-90s: Long Depression in Western Europe & North America

1872: Yellowstone National Park is created.

1873: Maxwell's A Treatise on Electricity & Magnetism published.

1874: Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, & Graveurs, better known today as Impressionists organize & present their first public group exhibition at Paris studio of photographer Nadar.

1874: British East India Company is dissolved.

1874–1875: First Republic in Spain.

1875–1900: 26 million Indians perished in India due to famine.

1876: Bulgarian revolt against Ottoman rule.

1876–1879: 13 million Chinese died of famine in northern China.

1876–1914: massive expansion in population, territory, industry & wealth in United States is referred to as Gilded Age.

1877: Great Railroad Strike in United States may have been world's first nationwide labor strike.

1877–78: Following Russo-Turkish War, Treaty of Berlin recognizes formal independence of Principality of Serbia, Montenegro & Romania. Bulgaria becomes autonomous.

1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut.

1879: Anglo-Zulu War in South Africa.

1879–83: Chile battles with Peru & Bolivia over Andean territory in War of Pacific.

[edit] 1880s

1880–1881: First Boer War.

1881: First electrical power plant & grid in Godalming, Britain.

1881–1899: Mahdist War in Sudan.

1882: British invasion & subsequent occupation of Egypt

1883: Krakatoa volcano explosion.

1884–85: Berlin Conference signals start of European "scramble for Africa". Attending nations also agree to ban trade in slaves.

1884–85: Sino-French War led to formation of French Indochina.

1885 : "The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll & Mr. Hyde" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.

1885: Singer begins production of 'Vibrating Shuttle' which would become Model T of sewing machines.

1886: Russian-Circassian War ended with defeat & exile of many Circassians. Imam Shamil defeated.

1888 (August): Jack Ripper is believed to have begun murdering.

1888 (November): Jack Ripper is believed to have murdered his last victim.

1888: Slavery banned in Brazil.

1889: Eiffel tower was inaugurated in Paris.

1889: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad establishes Ahmadi Muslim Community.

1889: End of Brazilian Empire & beginning of Brazilian Republic

[edit] 1890s

1890: Wounded Knee Massacre was last battle in American Indian Wars. This event represents end of American Old West.

1891: Basketball was invented.

1893: World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago celebrating 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in New World.

1894–95: After First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes Taiwan to Japan & grants Japan a free hand in Korea.

1895–1896: Ethiopia defeats Italy in First Italo–Ethiopian War.

1896: Olympic Games revived in Athens.

1896: Philippine Revolution ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.

1896: Ethiopia defeated Italy at Battle of Adwa.

1896: Klondike Gold Rush in Canada.

1897: Gojong, or Emperor Gwangmu, proclaims short-lived Korean Empire: lasts until 1910.

1898: United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, & Philippines after Spanish-American War.

1898–1900: Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by an Eight-Nation Alliance.

1898–1902: One Thousand Days war in Colombia breaks out between "Liberales" & "Conservadores", culminating with loss of Panama in 1903.

1899: Second Boer War begins (-1902); Philippine-American War begins (-1913).

[edit] Significant people

Clara Barton, nurse, pioneer of American Red Cross

Sitting Bull, a leader of Lakota

John Burroughs, Naturalist, conservationist, writer

Benito Juárez, Mexican President

Davy Crockett, King of wild frontier, folk hero, frontiersman, soldier & politician

Jefferson Davis, Confederate States President

William Gilbert Grace, English cricketer

Baron Haussmann, civic planner

Franz Joseph I of Austria, Emperor of Austria & brother of Mexican Emperor

Chief Joseph, a leader of Nez Percé

Ned Kelly, Australian folk hero, & outlaw

Elizabeth Kenny, Australian Nurse & found an Innovative Treatment of Polio

Sándor Körösi Csoma, explorer of Tibetan culture

Abraham Lincoln, United States President

Fitz Hugh Ludlow, writer & explorer

John Muir, Naturalist, writer, preservationist

Florence Nightingale, nursing pioneer

Napoleon I, First Consul & Emperor of French

Charles Stewart Parnell, Irish political leader

Commodore Perry, U.S. Naval commander, opened door to Japan

Dr. Jose P. Rizal, Filipino hero, novelist, liberator

Sacagawea, Important aide to Lewis&Clark

Ignaz Semmelweis, proponent of hygienic practices

Dr. John Snow, founder of epidemiology

F R Spofforth, Australian cricketer

Queen Victoria, Queen of United Kingdom

William Wilberforce, Abolitionist, Philanthropist

Hong Xiuquan inspired China's Taiping Rebellion, perhaps bloodiest civil war in human history

Karl Marx wrote Communist Manifesto, promoted change in labor system of Europe

[edit] Show business & theatre

P. T. Barnum, showman

David Belasco, actor, playwright, theatrical producer

Sarah Bernhardt, actress

Edwin Booth, actor

Dion Boucicault, playwright

Mrs Patrick Campbell, actress

Anton Chekhov, playwright

Buffalo Bill Cody, Wild West legend, & showman

Baptiste Deburau, Bohemian–French actor & mime.

Eleonora Duse, actress

Henrik Ibsen, playwright

Edmund Kean, actor

Charles Kean, actor

Lillie Langtry, actress, socialite

Frédérick Lemaître, actor

Jenny Lind, opera singer called Swedish Nightingale

Céleste Mogador, dancer

Lola Montez, exotic dancer

Adelaide Neilson, actress

Annie Oakley, Wild West, sharp-shooter

Lillian Russell, singer, actress

George Bernard Shaw, playwright

Edward Askew Sothern, actor

Ellen Terry, actress

[edit] Athletics

Cap Anson, baseball player

Gentleman Jim Corbett, heavyweight boxer

Big Ed Delahanty, baseball player

Bob Fitzsimmons, heavyweight boxer

Pud Galvin, baseball player

Olympic Games, 1894 IOC is formed, & first Summer Olympics games are held in Athens, Greece in 1896

Dr William Gilbert 'WG' Grace, cricketer

Peter Jackson, heavyweight boxer

James J. Jeffries, heavyweight boxer

Old Hoss Radbourn, baseball player

Tom Sharkey, heavyweight boxer

John L. Sullivan, heavyweight boxer

John Montgomery Ward, baseball player

Evangelis Zappas, Founder of International Modern Olympic Games

[edit] Business

John Jacob Astor III, Real Estate

Andrew Carnegie, Industrialist, philanthropist

Jay Cooke, Finance

Henry Clay Frick, Industrialist, art collector

Jay Gould, Railroad developer

Meyer Guggenheim Family patriarch, mining

Daniel Guggenheim (copper)

E. H. Harriman, Railroads

Henry O. Havemeyer (sugar), art collector

George Hearst, Gold

James J. Hill (railroads) – Empire Builder

Andrew W. Mellon, Industrialist, philanthropist, art collector

J.P. Morgan, banker, art collector

George Mortimer Pullman (railroads)

Charles Pratt Oil, founder of Pratt Institute

Cecil Rhodes diamonds, mining magnate, founder of De Beers.

John D. Rockefeller, Oil, Business tycoon, philanthropist

Levi Strauss, clothing manufacturer

Cornelius Vanderbilt, Shipping, Railroads

William Chapman Ralston, Businessman, Financier, founder of Bank of California.

[edit] Famous & infamous personalities

William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy Kid, Wild West, outlaw

John Wilkes Booth, assassin

James Bowie, Soldier, Texan who died at Alamo, invented Bowie knife

Jim Bridger, Wild West, Mountain man

John Brown, a fanatical abolitionist who led an armed insurrection at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1859.

Kit Carson, Wild West, frontiersman

Cochise, Chiricahua Apache leader

George Armstrong Custer, soldier, whose last stand was in Wild West

Wyatt Earp, Wild West, lawman

Pat Garrett, Wild West, lawman

Charles J. Guiteau, assassin

Jack Ripper, serial killer whose identity remains unknown.

Geronimo, Chiricahua Apache leader

Wild Bill Hickock, Legendary Wild West, lawman

Doc Holliday, Legendary Wild West, gambler, gunfighter

Crazy Horse, War leader of Lakota

Frank James, Wild West, outlaw, older brother of Jesse

Jesse James, Legendary Wild West, outlaw

Calamity Jane, Frontierswoman

Bat Masterson, Wild West, lawman, gambler, newspaperman

Allan Pinkerton, spy, founded Pinkerton Agency, first detective agency in United States

William Poole aka Bill Butcher, member of New York City gang, Bowery Boys, a bare-knuckle boxer, & a leader of Know Nothing political movement.

Belle Starr Legendary Wild West, female outlaw

Nat Turner, led a slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia during August 1831.

[edit] Anthropology, archaeology, scholars

Churchill Babington, Archaeology

Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier, Archaeology

Franz Boas, Anthropology

Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, Archaeology

Louis Agassiz Fuertes, Ornithology

George Bird Grinnell, Anthropology

Joseph LeConte, Scholar, preservationist

Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai, Anthropology

Clinton Hart Merriam, Zoology

Lewis H. Morgan, Anthropology

Jules Etienne Joseph Quicherat, Archaeology

Robert Ridgway, Ornithology

Edward Burnett Tylor, Anthropology

Karl Verner, Linguist

[edit] Journalists, missionaries, explorers

Roald Amundsen, explorer

Samuel Baker, explorer

Thomas Baines, artist, explorer

Heinrich Barth, explorer

Henry Walter Bates, naturalist, explorer

Jim Bridger, explorer

Richard Francis Burton, explorer

The Lewis&Clark expedition, exploration

Frederick Samuel Dellenbaugh, explorer

Percy Fawcett, adventurer, explorer, proto-Indiana Jones

Horace Greeley, journalist

Peter Jones (missionary), Canadian Methodist minister, & go-between between Christians & his fellow Mississaugas & other Indian tribes.

Adoniram Judson, missionary

Sir John Kirk, explorer, physician, companion of David Livingston

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, botanist, explorer, friend of Charles Darwin

Sir William Jackson Hooker, botanist, explorer, father of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker

Meriwether Lewis, explorer

David Livingstone, missionary

Thomas Nast, journalist, caricaturist & editorial cartoonist

Robert Peary, explorer

Marcelo H. del Pilar, writer, journalist, editor of La Solidaridad.

Nikolai Przhevalsky, explorer

Frederick Selous, explorer

John Hanning Speke, explorer

Henry M. Stanley, journalist, explorer

John McDouall Stuart, explorer

John L. O'Sullivan, journalist who coined Manifest Destiny

[edit] Photography

Ottomar Anschütz, chronophotographer

Mathew Brady, documented American Civil War

Edward S. Curtis, documented American West notably Native Americans

Louis Daguerre, inventor of daguerreotype process of photography, chemist

Thomas Eakins, pioneer motion photographer

George Eastman, inventor of roll of film

Hércules Florence, pioneer inventor of photography

Auguste & Louis Lumière, pioneer filmmakers, inventors

Étienne-Jules Marey, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer

Eadweard Muybridge, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer

Nadar aka Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer

Nicéphore Niépce, pioneer inventor of photography

Louis Le Prince, motion picture inventor & pioneer filmmaker

William Fox Talbot, inventor of negative / positive photographic process.

[edit] Visual artists, painters, sculptors

The Realism & Romanticism of early 19th century gave way to Impressionism & Post-Impressionism in later half of century, with Paris being dominant art capital of world. In United States Hudson River School was prominent. 19th century painters included:

Albert Bierstadt

William Blake

Arnold Bocklin

Mary Cassatt

Camille Claudel

Paul Cézanne

Frederic Edwin Church

Thomas Cole

John Constable

Camille Corot

James Tissot

Gustave Courbet

Honoré Daumier

Edgar Degas

Eugène Delacroix

Thomas Eakins

Caspar David Friedrich

Paul Gauguin

Théodore Géricault

Vincent van Gogh

Ando Hiroshige

Hokusai

Winslow Homer

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres

Édouard Manet

Claude Monet

Gustave Moreau

Berthe Morisot

Edvard Munch

Camille Pissarro

Pierre-Auguste Renoir

Auguste Rodin

Albert Pinkham Ryder

John Singer Sargent

Georges Seurat

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Joseph Mallord William Turner

James Abbott McNeill Whistler

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi

[edit] Music

Sonata form matured during Classical era to become primary form of instrumental compositions throughout 19th century. Much of music from 19th century was referred to as being in Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky & Richard Wagner. list includes:

Ludwig van Beethoven

Hector Berlioz

Georges Bizet

Alexander Borodin

Johannes Brahms

Anton Bruckner

Frédéric Chopin

Claude Debussy

Antonín Dvořák

Edvard Grieg

Scott Joplin

Gustav Mahler

Franz Liszt

Felix Mendelssohn

Modest Mussorgsky

Jacques Offenbach

Niccolò Paganini

Camille Saint-Saëns

Antonio Salieri

Franz Schubert

Robert Schumann

Gilbert & Sullivan

Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky

Giuseppe Verdi

Richard Wagner

[edit] Literature

On literary front new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, & it develops more or less along lines of Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against dramatic changes wrought on nature by steam engine & railway. William Wordsworth & Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered initiators of new school in England, while in continent German Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy & Spain.

French arts had been hampered by Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began.

The Goncourts & Emile Zola in France & Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic & cultural diversity. On February 21, 1848, Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels published Communist Manifesto.

There was a huge literary output during 19th century. Some of most famous writers included Russians Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov & Fyodor Dostoevsky; English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson & Jane Austen; Scottish Sir Walter Scott; Irish Oscar Wilde; Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, & Mark Twain; & French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne & Charles Baudelaire. Some other important writers of note included:

Leopoldo Alas

Hans Christian Andersen

Machado de Assis

Jane Austen

Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda

Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer

Elizabeth Barret Browning

Anne Brontë

Charlotte Brontë

Emily Brontë

Georg Büchner

Lord Byron

Rosalía de Castro

François-René de Chateaubriand

Kate Chopin

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

James Fenimore Cooper

Stephen Crane

Eduard Douwes Dekker

Emily Dickinson

Charles Dickens

Arthur Conan Doyle

Alexandre Dumas, père (1802–1870)

George Eliot

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Gustave Flaubert

Margaret Fuller

Elizabeth Gaskell

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Nikolai Gogol

Juana Manuela Gorriti

Brothers Grimm

Henry Rider Haggard

Ida Gräfin Hahn-Hahn (1805–1880)

Thomas Hardy

Francis Bret Harte

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Friedrich Hölderlin

Heinrich Heine

Henrik Ibsen

Washington Irving

Henry James

John Keats

Caroline Kirkland

Jules Laforgue

Giacomo Leopardi

Stéphane Mallarmé

Alessandro Manzoni

José Martí

Clorinda Matto de Turner

Herman Melville

Friedrich Nietzsche

Manuel González Prada

Marcel Proust

Aleksandr Pushkin

Fritz Reuter (1810–1874)

Arthur Rimbaud

John Ruskin

George Sand (Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin)

Mary Shelley

Percy Shelley

Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle)

Robert Louis Stevenson

Bram Stoker

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Alfred, Lord Tennyson

Henry David Thoreau

Leo Tolstoy

Mark Twain

Paul Verlaine

Jules Verne

Lew Wallace

HG Wells

Walt Whitman

Oscar Wilde

William Wordsworth

Émile Zola

José Zorrilla

[edit] Science

The 19th century saw birth of science as a profession; term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell.[9] Among most influential ideas of 19th century were those of Charles Darwin, who in 1859 published book Origin of Species, which introduced idea of evolution by natural selection. Louis Pasteur made first vaccine against rabies, & also made many discoveries in field of chemistry, including asymmetry of crystals. Thomas Alva Edison gave world a practical everyday lightbulb. Karl Weierstrass & other mathematicians also carried out arithmetization of analysis for functions of real & complex variables; they also began use of hypercomplex numbers. But most important step in science at this time was ideas formulated by Michael Faraday & James Clerk Maxwell. Their work changed face of physics & made possible for new technology to come about. Other important 19th century scientists included:

Amedeo Avogadro, physicist

Johann Jakob Balmer, mathematician, physicist

Henri Becquerel, physicist

Alexander Graham Bell, inventor

Ludwig Boltzmann, physicist

János Bolyai, mathematician

Louis Braille, inventor of braille

Robert Bunsen, chemist

Marie Curie, physicist, chemist

Pierre Curie, physicist

Gottlieb Daimler, engineer, industrial designer & industrialist

Christian Doppler, physicist, mathematician

Thomas Edison, inventor

Michael Faraday, scientist

Léon Foucault, physicist

Gottlob Frege, mathematician, logician & philosopher

Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalysis

Carl Friedrich Gauss, mathematician, physicist, astronomer

Josiah Willard Gibbs, physicist

Ernst Haeckel, biologist

William Rowan Hamilton, physicist & mathematician

Oliver Heaviside, electrical engineer, physical mathematician

Heinrich Hertz, physicist

Alexander von Humboldt, naturalist, explorer

Robert Koch, physician, bacteriologist

Justus von Liebig, chemist

Nikolai Lobachevsky, mathematician

James Clerk Maxwell, physicist

Wilhelm Maybach, car-engine & automobile designer & industrialist

Gregor Mendel, biologist

Dmitri Mendeleev, chemist

Samuel Morey, inventor

Alfred Nobel, chemist, engineer, inventor

Louis Pasteur, microbiologist & chemist

Santiago Ramón y Cajal, biologist

Bernhard Riemann, mathematician

William Emerson Ritter, biologist

Nikola Tesla, inventor

William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, physicist

[edit] Philosophy & religion

The 19th century was host to a variety of religious & philosophical thinkers, including:

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded Ahmadiyya Islamic movement in India.

Bahá'u'lláh founded Bahá'í Faith in Persia

Mikhail Bakunin, anarchist

William Booth, social reformer, founder of Salvation Army

Auguste Comte, philosopher

Mary Baker Eddy, religious leader, founder of Christian Science

Friedrich Engels, political philosopher

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, philosopher

Allan Kardec, sistematizer of Spiritist Doctrine

Søren Kierkegaard, philosopher

Karl Marx, political philosopher

John Stuart Mill, philosopher

William Morris, social reformer

Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher

Nikolai (Nicholas) of Japan, religious leader, introduced Eastern Orthodoxy into Japan

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Hindu mystic

Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, founder of French socialism

Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher

Joseph Smith, Jr. & Brigham Young, founders of Mormonism

Ayya Vaikundar, initiator of belief system of Ayyavazhi

Ellen White religious author & co-founder of Seventh-day Adventist Church

[edit] Politics & Military

John Adams, American statesman, lawyer, & president

John Quincy Adams, U.S. congressman, lawyer, & president

Susan B. Anthony, U.S. women's rights advocate

Otto von Bismarck, German chancellor

Napoleon Bonaparte, French general, first consul & emperor

John C. Calhoun, U.S. senator

Henry Clay, U.S. statesman, "The Great Compromiser"

Jefferson Davis, President of Confederate States of America just before & during American Civil War.

Benjamin Disraeli, novelist & politician

Frederick Douglass, U.S. abolitionist spokesman

Ferdinand VII of Spain

Joseph Fouché, French politician

John C. Frémont, Explorer, Governor of California

Giuseppe Garibaldi, unifier of Italy & Piedmontese soldier

Isabella II of Spain

Gojong of Joseon, Korean emperor

William Lloyd Garrison, U.S. abolitionist leader

William Ewart Gladstone, British prime minister

Ulysses S. Grant, U.S. general & president

George Hearst, U.S. Senator & father of William Randolph Hearst

Theodor Herzl, founder of modern political Zionism

Andrew Jackson, U.S. general & president

Thomas Jefferson, American statesman, philosopher, & president

Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian governor; leader of war of independence

Robert E. Lee, Confederate general

Libertadores, Latin American liberators

Abraham Lincoln, U.S. president; led nation during American Civil War

Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada, first Prime Minister of Canada

Klemens von Metternich, Austrian Chancellor

Mutsuhito, Japanese emperor

Napoleon III

Pedro II of Brazil

Cecil Rhodes

Theodore Roosevelt, Explorer, Naturalist, future President of United States

William Tecumseh Sherman, Union general during American Civil War

Fulwar Skipwith, first & only president of short lived Republic of West Florida

Leland Stanford, Governor of California, U.S. Senator, entrepreneur

István Széchenyi, aristocrat, leader of Hungarian reform movement

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, French politician

Harriet Tubman, African-American abolitionist, humanitarian, played a part in Underground Railroad

William M. Tweed, aka Boss Tweed, influential New York City politician, head of Tammany Hall

Queen Victoria, British monarch

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, British General & prime minister

Hong Xiuquan, revolutionary, self-proclaimed Son of God

Tokugawa Yoshinobu, Japanese Shogun (The Last Shogun)

20th

21st