1 10 Word Menu
1 The Study of Good & Virtue
1 Every art aims at some good; master arts' ends are preferred.
2 The chief good guides all actions; politics aims at this.
3 Precision varies by subject; educated judges know what precision requires.
4 Happiness is highest good; different views exist on happiness.
5 Pleasure, honour, & contemplation offer different views on happiness.
6 Different goods have distinct definitions; universal good is elusive.
7 Final good is always pursued for itself; happiness is final.
8 Goods are categorized by their relation to soul or body.
9 Happiness might result from virtue or divine providence.
10 A person’s happiness is not fully judged until death.
11 Friends’ fortunes influence happiness but do not fully change it.
12 Happiness is not praised but considered more divine & perfect.
13 Happiness requires understanding virtue & studying soul’s nature.
2 The Study of Virtue
1 Virtue is intellectual (learned) or moral (formed by habit).
2 Virtues arise from practice, not nature; moderation prevents excess.
3 Character states are shown by pleasure or pain from actions.
4 Just & temperate actions require proper conditions, not just knowledge.
5 Virtues are states of character, not passions or faculties.
6 Virtue is a state that makes both individual & their actions excellent, aiming for intermediate between excess & deficiency.
7 Virtue finds mean in specific cases: courage, temperance, & liberality are examples of balanced states.
8 The extremes oppose each other more than intermediate state, with some extremes showing more opposition.
9 Virtue is difficult to achieve as it requires balancing extremes & finding right mean in varied circumstances.
3 Exploration of Virtue & Vice
1 Distinguish voluntary from involuntary; praise & blame are given accordingly.
2 Choice is voluntary but differs from general voluntary actions.
3 Deliberation concerns means, not ends; we deliberate about achievable means.
4 Wish relates to apparent good; not necessarily true good.
5 Virtue & vice are voluntary because they depend on choice.
6 Wickedness is voluntary; ignorance leads to responsibility for actions.
7 Vices of body are blameworthy if within our control.
8 End perceptions vary; virtue & vice depend on personal choice.
9 Courage is a mean between fear & confidence in actions.
10 Citizen-soldier courage is valued; professional soldiers may falter under strain.
11 Natural appetites can be excessive; self-indulgence is blameworthy, temperance balances.
12 Self-indulgence is voluntary, unlike cowardice; desires must align rationally.
4
1 Liberality involves wise wealth management; prodigality & meanness show flaws. Prodigality is excessive spending, while meanness is reluctance to give.
2 Magnificence involves grand expenditures, exceeding liberality in scale & fittingness. It focuses on honor, avoiding vulgarity & showy spending.
3 The magnificent person spends grandly & tastefully, focusing on honor. Magnificence involves appropriate, enduring expenditures, requiring substantial means & standing.
4 Honor can be desired excessively, moderately, or minimally; moderation is praised.
5 Good temper balances anger; excess or deficiency in anger is blameworthy.
6 Social behavior should balance giving pleasure & avoiding pain.
7 Truthfulness lies between boastfulness & false modesty; extremes are blameworthy.
8 Humor should be tasteful; extremes in joking are undesirable.
9 Shame is not a virtue; it is a feeling of dishonor.
5
1 Justice involves a character that desires & acts justly. Injustice does not. Justice is lawful & fair; injustice is unlawful & unfair.
2 There is a particular justice, distinct from virtue entirely. Injustice can be specific or general, reflecting different forms of wrongdoing.
3 Justice is proportional, an intermediate between extremes. It involves equality & fairness in distribution.
4 Rectificatory justice equalizes transactions' outcomes, balancing gain & loss through corrective measures.
6 Unjust acts don’t necessarily indicate an unjust person; motivations differ.
7 Political justice involves laws, differing from natural justice, which is universal.
8 Voluntary actions determine justice; involuntary acts are only incidental.
9 Suffering injustice may be involuntary; acting unjustly is always voluntary.
10 Equity & equity differ from justice; both involve nuanced evaluation.
11 A man cannot treat himself unjustly; unjust acts require others.
6
1: Virtue is an intermediate state, determined by right rule.
2: Virtue involves aligning desire & reasoning with correct choice-making.
3: Scientific knowledge involves demonstrating universal truths through induction & syllogism.
4: Art involves creating variable things; not identical with making.
5: Practical wisdom is a reasoned state of acting for human goods.
6: Intuitive reason grasps first principles; not covered by other knowledge.
7: Wisdom combines intuitive reason & scientific knowledge of highest objects.
8: Political & Practical Wisdom
9: Deliberation & Excellence
10: Understanding & Practical Wisdom
11: Judgment & Sympathetic Understanding
12: Utility & Virtue
13: Natural Virtue & Practical Wisdom
1: To find intermediate state in character, follow right rule to balance excess & defect. Understanding & applying right rule is essential for practical moral guidance.
2: Moral virtue involves choice, combining desire & reason. Choice is origin of action & involves deliberation, distinguishing it from mere reaction or past events.
3: Scientific knowledge involves understanding necessary & unchangeable truths through demonstration from first principles. It provides a comprehensive grasp of essential truths.
4: Art involves creating something variable, focusing on making rather than acting. It requires reasoned capacity to create & is distinct from actions driven by necessity.
5: Practical wisdom involves evaluating what contributes to good life generally, focusing on good actions rather than specific ends. It differs from scientific knowledge & art.
6: Scientific knowledge is about universal truths from first principles, while intuitive reason grasps these foundational principles. They complement each other in understanding truths.
7: Wisdom combines intuitive reason with scientific knowledge. Philosophic wisdom seeks universal truths, while practical wisdom focuses on human goods & actions.
8: Political & practical wisdom differ in scope. Political wisdom addresses societal laws, while practical wisdom deals with individual & collective good. Youth may lack practical wisdom due to limited experience.
9: Deliberation involves specific consideration for practical success, aiming at right means & ends. It is distinct from mere conjecture or opinion, requiring correct reasoning.
10: Understanding involves judgment & evaluation, connecting with practical wisdom. It assesses validity of opinions & aligns with practical wisdom in judging what should be done.
11: Judgment involves discerning what is equitable & correct. It converges with practical wisdom & understanding, supported by intuitive reason & experience for evaluating specifics & fundamentals.
12: Practical wisdom guides moral actions & complements moral virtue, helping achieve noble goals. It does not directly produce happiness but aligns with virtue to guide right actions.
13: Natural virtue differs from true virtue, akin to cleverness. Practical wisdom refines natural virtues into moral virtues, ensuring actions align with moral goodness. True virtue integrates practical wisdom.
7
1: There are three moral states: vice, incontinence, brutishness; virtues oppose.
2: Socrates argues knowledge prevents incontinence; ignorance causes irrational actions.
3: Incontinence differs by objects & attitudes; opinions versus knowledge explained.
4: Incontinence is context-specific; affects bodily pleasures & honor differently.
5: Pleasures & pains are categorized; incontinence in excess of choices.
6: Anger-induced incontinence is less disgraceful than appetite-driven incontinence.
7: Pleasures & pains lead to self-indulgence or temperance, differing states.
8: Self-indulgent people lack repentance; incontinence is intermittent, vice permanent.
9: Continents choose right consistently; incontinents abandon good choices often.
10: Incontinence is emotional failure; self-indulgence is persistent moral weakness.
11: Pleasure & pain are examined in political philosophy; pleasure’s value debated.
12: Pleasure can be good or bad; context & state matter.
13: Pain’s badness supports pleasure’s goodness; pleasure may be chief good.
14: Bodily pleasures versus noble ones; excessive pursuit leads to issues.
8
1: Friendship implies virtue, essential for living well, & valued prosperity.
2: Debates exist on friendship’s nature: similarity, opposites, or virtue.
3: Friendship types: based on good, pleasure, or utility.
4: Friendship based on utility, pleasure, or virtue; virtue endures.
5: Friendship requires proximity; absence might cause forgetting; goodness endures.
6: Friendship forms less easily between sour or elderly individuals due to temperament.
7: True friendship is rare; deep connections with many are impossible.
8: Friendships for pleasure involve mutual delight, while utility-based friendships focus on practical benefits.
9: Friendships often involve inequality; love should be proportional to merit.
10: Constitutions include monarchy, aristocracy, & timocracy, each with potential deviations.
11: Friendship in various constitutions involves justice, benefits, & superiority dynamics.
12: Kindred friendships are rooted in parental bonds & shared upbringing.
13: Friendships vary by equality or superiority, impacting expectations & complaints.
14: Superior friendships involve honor, inferiors expect practical benefits & assistance.
9
1: Friendship implies virtue, essential for living well, & valued prosperity.
2: Debates exist on friendship’s nature: similarity, opposites, or virtue.
3: Friendship types: based on good, pleasure, or utility.
4: Friendship based on utility, pleasure, or virtue; virtue endures.
5: Friendship requires proximity; absence might cause forgetting; goodness endures.
6: Unanimity in a city means agreement on actions & interests.
7: Benefactors love those they help more than beneficiaries appreciate them.
8: One should love themselves most, reflecting their virtues & desires.
9: A happy man needs friends to share & enjoy life.
10
1: Friendship implies virtue, essential for living well, & valued prosperity.
2: Debates exist on friendship’s nature: similarity, opposites, or virtue.
3: Friendship types: based on good, pleasure, or utility.
4: Friendship based on utility, pleasure, or virtue; virtue endures.
5: Friendship requires proximity; absence might cause forgetting; goodness endures.
6: Unanimity in a city means agreement on actions & interests.
7: Benefactors love those they help more than beneficiaries appreciate them.
8: One should love themselves most, reflecting their virtues & desires.
9: A happy man needs friends to share & enjoy life.
1: Friendship implies virtue, essential for living well, & valued prosperity.
2: Debates exist on friendship’s nature: similarity, opposites, or virtue.
3: Friendship types: based on good, pleasure, or utility.
4: Friendship based on utility, pleasure, or virtue; virtue endures.
5: Friendship requires proximity; absence might cause forgetting; goodness endures.
6: Unanimity in a city means agreement on actions & interests.
7: Benefactors love those they help more than beneficiaries appreciate them.
8: One should love themselves most, reflecting their virtues & desires.
9: A happy man needs friends to share & enjoy life.
1: Pleasure is crucial for virtue, influencing choices & happiness.
2: Eudoxus argued pleasure is good because all things aim.
3: Pleasure's value varies; it's not always consistent or a good.
4: Pleasure is complete & whole; not a movement or process.
5: Pleasures differ by activity; each completes & intensifies specific activities.
6: Happiness is activity, not merely amusement; it’s self-sufficient, virtuous.
7: Happiness involves activity of highest virtue: contemplative, continuous, pure.
8: Life with virtue, practical wisdom, & external goods; moderation helps.
9: Arguments alone can’t make us good; practical training & habits are essential.
2 50 Word Menu
1 The Study of Good & Virtue
1 Every art & inquiry aims at some good, distinguishing between activities & products.
2 If there is an ultimate end of actions, desired for its own sake, it must be chief good.
3 Precision in discussions about fine & just actions varies with their nature.
4 The highest good is commonly identified as happiness, with various opinions on its nature.
5 Men often equate happiness with pleasure, honor, or money.
6 Discussing universal good is challenging due to varying interpretations.
7 The good varies by action & art, such as health in medicine or victory in strategy.
8 Goods are divided into three classes: external, soul-related, & bodily.
9 Happiness might be seen as a divine gift, but it also results from virtue & learning.
10 Happiness should be assessed over a complete life, not just in moments.
11 The fortunes of friends & descendants impact happiness but not decisively.
12 Happiness is more about being prized than praised, akin to how gods & exemplary individuals are regarded.
13 Happiness involves virtuous activity of soul, so understanding virtue is crucial.
2 The Study of Virtue
1 Virtue is of two kinds: intellectual & moral. Intellectual virtue grows through teaching, requiring experience & time. Moral virtue arises from habit, hence its name derived from ethos (habit).
2 Our inquiry aims not for theoretical knowledge but practical goodness. Actions determine character states, so understanding how to act properly is crucial.
3 States of character are indicated by pleasure or pain from actions. Temperate individuals delight in abstaining from pleasures, while self-indulgent people find it painful.
4 We must act justly & temperately to become just & temperate. Just acts do not make one just automatically; actions must be done correctly & with right condition.
5 Virtue must be a state of character, distinct from passions & faculties. Passions like anger & fear are feelings accompanied by pleasure or pain, while faculties are capacities to experience these feelings.
6 Virtue is a state of character that makes one good & effective. Every virtue improves both individual & their work.
7 Virtue applies to individual actions & emotions, distinguishing between excess & deficiency. Courage, for instance, is mean between recklessness & cowardice.
8 Dispositions can be either vices (excess or deficiency) or virtues (means). Extreme states oppose each other & mean, which lies between them.
9 Moral virtue is a mean between two vices—one of excess, other of deficiency. Achieving this balance is difficult, as it requires finding right measure in various situations.
3 Exploration of Virtue & Vice
1 Virtue relates to voluntary actions; distinction between voluntary & involuntary.
2 Choice involves deliberation, differs from voluntary actions & mere opinions.
3 Deliberation focuses on means to achieve ends within our control.
4 Wish reflects personal perception of good, not an objective standard.
5 Virtue & vice are within our control; actions are voluntary.
6 Virtues are means between extremes of feelings like fear & confidence.
7 Bravery involves facing noble dangers appropriately, avoiding extremes.
8 Courage varies: citizen-soldiers & professionals differ from passion-driven bravery.
9 Bravery includes moral & intellectual understanding, not just physical courage.
10 True bravery balances noble motives, fear, & confidence.
11 Temperance balances desires; self-indulgence leads to excess & blame.
12 Self-indulgence is voluntary & blameworthy, unlike involuntary cowardice.
4 Exploration of Virtue & Vice
1 Liberality concerns giving & taking of wealth, with liberal person praised for their generosity rather than for other virtues like military prowess or judicial wisdom. Prodigality & meanness are viewed as excesses or deficiencies in handling wealth. Prodigality involves excessive spending & self-indulgence, while meanness signifies an excessive concern with acquiring wealth & a reluctance to give. A liberal person gives wisely & appropriately, finding joy in giving & taking from right sources. Prodigality & meanness, by contrast, show flawed character, with prodigals often taking from improper sources & misusing wealth.
2 Magnificence is a virtue related to large-scale expenditures, exceeding liberality in scale & requiring fittingness & grandeur. It involves spending large sums in a manner that is fitting to circumstances, surpassing mere liberal giving. Magnificence is demonstrated through grand acts like equipping a trireme or heading a sacred embassy. magnificent person balances result with expense, aiming for excellence & beauty in their expenditures. They spend for honor & public good, contrasting with vulgarity & niggardliness, which involve inappropriate or showy expenditures & lack of taste.
3 The magnificent person resembles an artist in their ability to make large expenditures tastefully, ensuring result matches or exceeds expense. They are liberal but on a grander scale, focusing on honor & suitability. Magnificence involves spending on public or significant occasions, like weddings or civic events, & on enduring works. It requires substantial means & high standing, as a poor person cannot be truly magnificent. Expenditure must be appropriate to one's means & occasion, avoiding excess & vulgarity, ensuring that even small-scale efforts are executed with grandeur.
4 The concept of honor involves a balance akin to that seen in virtues like liberality. Honor, like wealth, can be desired excessively or insufficiently. We praise ambitious person who seeks honor rightly but criticize one who seeks it excessively or from inappropriate sources. Conversely, we also commend unambitious individual for their moderation but fault them for lacking desire for honor even when deserved. Thus, honor's mean is not named, leading to extremes being seen as contradictory. This reflects general difficulty in defining virtues where mean remains unnamed, & extremes are clearer.
5 Good temper represents a mean concerning anger, as it lies between irascibility & inirascibility. good-tempered person is praised for managing anger appropriately—directing it correctly, at right times, & for suitable durations. Conversely, those who are not angry when they should be are deemed foolish, while those who are excessively angry are seen as problematic. extremes of anger, from excessive rage to lack of anger, are both blameworthy. good-tempered person avoids both extremes, managing anger with moderation & propriety.
6 In social interactions, people fall into two extremes: obsequiousness & churlishness. obsequious person seeks to please at any cost, while churlish person is unyieldingly contentious. commendable middle ground involves responding to social situations appropriately without seeking to please excessively or being overly contentious. This balanced approach is akin to friendship, characterized by appropriate & fair treatment of others based on honor & expediency. person who manages this balance well has not received a specific name, highlighting absence of a term for this virtuous mean.
7 The virtue opposed to boastfulness also lacks a specific name. Boastfulness involves claiming more than one possesses, while mock-modesty involves downplaying one's achievements. virtuous mean is truthfulness, where a person accurately represents their qualities & achievements. Those who boast without ulterior motives are seen as contemptible, but severity increases if their boasting is for gain. Mock-modesty can be more attractive but can also be insincere. truthful person avoids falsehood, being characterized by honesty in both life & speech, standing in contrast to both boastfulness & mock-modesty.
8 In social interactions involving humor & amusement, there is a mean between excess & deficiency. Excessive humor can become vulgar & aim solely at laughter, while those who neither joke nor appreciate humor are seen as boorish. ideal is a tactful person who engages in humor appropriately, respecting social norms & context. This tactfulness is reflected in how well-bred individuals joke without causing offense. extremes—buffoonery & boorishness—represent excess & deficiency of humor, with tactful person navigating between these extremes effectively.
9 Shame is not a virtue but a feeling akin to fear, manifesting as a response to dishonor. It primarily affects young, who are more prone to errors & thus benefit from restraining influence of shame. Older individuals, however, should ideally avoid actions that would cause shame. Since disgrace arises from bad actions, which should be avoided, shame itself does not reflect well on one's character. It is more a response to perceived dishonor than a stable state of virtue, thus not fitting description of a true virtue.
5
1 To understand justice & injustice, we examine their actions, means, & extremes. Justice involves a state of character that leads people to act justly & desire what is just. Injustice leads to unjust actions & desires. Recognizing one contrary often involves recognizing its opposite. Law-abiding individuals are just, while lawless are unjust.
2 Justice is part of virtue & involves specific forms of injustice related to gain & unfairness. Seeking profit at expense of others is unjust, whereas actions driven by appetite or fear might be seen as self-indulgent or cowardly rather than unjust. Justice encompasses various types, including those concerning honor, money, or safety.
3 Justice is intermediate & equal, involving two persons & two things. Proportional justice maintains a ratio between these terms, ensuring fair distribution of goods based on merit or need. Unjust actions disrupt this proportion, leading to unequal distributions.
4 Rectificatory justice addresses correcting inequalities in transactions by equalizing gains & losses. Unlike distributive justice, which is proportional, rectificatory justice involves compensating injured party & penalizing wrongdoer. Judges act as intermediaries to restore balance.
5 Acting unjustly doesn't always mean being unjust. A thief or adulterer may act unjustly due to passion rather than deliberate choice. Political justice is relevant for those seeking self-sufficiency & equality, contrasting with special or analogical justice.
6 Political justice consists of natural & legal parts. Natural justice is universal & constant, while legal justice is specific to laws & conventions. Justice can vary by human enactment, with some being universally just & others legally defined.
7 Acts of justice or injustice depend on voluntariness. Voluntary acts are done knowingly & with intention, while involuntary acts occur due to ignorance or compulsion. True justice or injustice is reflected in voluntary acts done with deliberation.
8 The paradox of willingly suffering injustice raises questions about voluntariness. While suffering injustice seems involuntary, one might experience it willingly if they act contrary to their wishes. Self-treatment with injustice involves complexity, as unjust treatment & self-injustice are distinct considerations.
9 Equity & equitable relate to justice but aren't identical. Equity addresses fairness beyond rigid legal standards, considering specific circumstances & intentions to achieve a just outcome, unlike strict adherence to laws.
10 The complexity of whether one can treat oneself unjustly involves legal & moral considerations. Acts like suicide, forbidden by law, are seen as unjust towards state rather than oneself. Unjust actions involve multiple people & voluntary choice, making self-harm not categorized as unjust in this sense.
6
1: To determine intermediate state in character, we must follow right rule. This rule guides us to find mean between excess & defect. However, knowing this isn’t enough; we need to identify specific right rule & standard that determines this mean. Just as in medicine we need specific prescriptions, in moral virtues, we must understand what defines intermediate state & how to apply it effectively. Without such knowledge, a person would lack practical wisdom necessary for proper moral guidance.
2: The virtue of something relates to its proper function. In soul, sensation, reason, & desire control actions. Sensation alone does not initiate action. Moral virtue involves choice, which is a deliberate desire guided by correct reasoning. Practical intellect involves both correct reasoning & right desire. Choice, origin of action, depends on both intellect & character. Since actions depend on future possibilities, choice involves deliberation & cannot concern past. Thus, choice combines desire with reason, forming basis of action.
3: The soul possesses truth through art, scientific knowledge, practical wisdom, philosophic wisdom, & intuitive reason. Scientific knowledge is understanding what is necessary & unchangeable. It involves demonstration & follows from first principles, acquired through induction or syllogism. Thus, scientific knowledge is ability to demonstrate truths from known principles. It’s a state of understanding where starting points are clear, leading to a comprehensive grasp of necessary truths.
4: The capacity to act & to make are distinct. Architecture is an art, a reasoned capacity to create something variable, not necessarily present by nature. Art involves making, not acting, & is concerned with creating, not necessarily with actions driven by necessity. Art's focus is on creating something that might be otherwise, involving true reasoning. Lack of art indicates a false reasoning about making. Therefore, art is a reasoned state concerned with making, distinguishing it from actions.
5: Practical wisdom involves deliberating about what is good for life, not just specific aspects like health or strength. It requires evaluating what contributes to good life generally. Unlike scientific knowledge or art, practical wisdom involves true & reasoned action in variable contexts. Practical wisdom does not aim at a specific end but at good actions. It’s different from art & science, & involves ability to make good decisions about human goods, rather than abstract principles.
6: Scientific knowledge pertains to universal & necessary truths derived from first principles. These principles themselves cannot be scientifically known, as they are foundational. Intuitive reason, which grasps these first principles, differs from scientific knowledge & other forms of wisdom. Scientific knowledge involves demonstration, while intuitive reason is necessary for understanding foundational principles. Hence, intuitive reason grasps what is necessary & unchangeable, filling gap left by other forms of knowledge.
7: Wisdom combines intuitive reason with scientific knowledge of highest objects. While art-specific wisdom applies to particular fields, general wisdom involves a broader understanding of fundamental truths. Philosophic wisdom, different from practical wisdom, seeks highest truths & involves scientific knowledge & intuitive reason. Practical wisdom addresses human goods & deliberative actions, while philosophic wisdom pertains to universal & divine principles. This distinction highlights that wisdom in general includes comprehensive knowledge & understanding, beyond specific expertise.
8: Political & practical wisdom are linked but differ in essence. Political wisdom involves action & deliberation, related to specific decrees, while practical wisdom pertains to individual knowledge. Practical wisdom encompasses household management, legislation, & politics, with a focus on individual & collective good. Political wisdom is broader, dealing with societal laws & action. Youth lack practical wisdom due to limited experience, though they may excel in abstract fields like mathematics. Practical wisdom differs from scientific knowledge, focusing on immediate particulars rather than abstract principles. Hence, practical wisdom requires experience & intuitive reasoning.
9: Deliberation is distinct from inquiry; it involves specific consideration. Excellence in deliberation is not scientific knowledge, skill in conjecture, or mere opinion. It requires reasoning & correctness, aiming for practical success rather than abstract truth. Correct deliberation involves achieving right end through proper means. Deliberation must address what is expedient & successful, whether generally or in specific contexts. Practical wisdom involves correct deliberation towards achieving good ends. Deliberation excellence involves both means & goal, distinguishing it from mere calculation or conjecture.
10: Understanding differs from opinion & scientific knowledge. It concerns judgment & evaluation, not merely knowing or acquiring practical wisdom. Understanding involves exercising faculty of opinion to assess & judge. It aligns with practical wisdom in judging what ought to be done. Practical wisdom commands actions, while understanding judges validity of opinions. Understanding applies to practical wisdom by evaluating judgments about practical matters. Hence, understanding is about grasping scientific truths & evaluating judgments, connecting with practical wisdom through judgment & discernment.
11: Judgment involves discerning what is equitable & correct. Sympathetic judgment correctly discriminates equitable, & accurate judgment aligns with truth. Judgement, understanding, & practical wisdom converge on evaluating particulars & ultimates. These faculties deal with specific, variable facts. Intuitive reason supports judgments about both first principles & particulars, forming basis for demonstrations & practical reasonings. Experience & intuitive reason guide judgment & practical wisdom. Therefore, natural endowments like judgment & understanding are crucial for practical wisdom, developed over time & experience.
12: Practical wisdom's utility lies in guiding moral & noble actions. It aids in achieving good, though it doesn’t produce happiness directly. Practical wisdom complements moral virtue, guiding actions towards noble ends. Unlike arts like medicine, practical wisdom shapes character to perform virtuous acts. Practical wisdom helps in achieving good but doesn’t replace need for virtue. It is integral to acting rightly & achieving noble goals, aligning with virtue & moral goodness.
13: Natural virtue differs from virtue in strict sense, akin to cleverness & practical wisdom. Natural dispositions are innate but need reason to become true virtue. Practical wisdom refines natural virtues into moral virtues, as seen in Socrates' views. Virtues in strict sense require practical wisdom, which provides right rule for virtuous actions. Practical wisdom ensures that actions align with moral virtues. Thus, true virtue integrates practical wisdom, confirming that moral virtue & practical wisdom are interdependent & complementary.
7
1: To begin anew, we should consider three moral states to avoid: vice, incontinence, & brutishness. Virtue & continence are opposites of vice & incontinence, respectively. Brutishness, however, is best countered by a form of superhuman virtue, akin to divine or heroic excellence. Such divine virtue is beyond ordinary human realm of virtue & vice. Gods, in this framework, possess a state that surpasses virtue, while brutishness represents a lower, non-virtuous state. Rare among humans, brutishness is usually found in barbarians or those affected by disease or deformity, unlike superhuman virtue which is exceptionally rare.
2: Socrates argued that incontinence is impossible for those with true knowledge, claiming that if one knows what is best, they cannot act against it. However, this contradicts observable behavior. Socrates believed incontinence stems from ignorance rather than knowledge. Some accept that knowledge is paramount but argue that incontinent person has merely weak opinions, not true knowledge. Practical wisdom should prevent incontinence, but it is problematic to reconcile practical wisdom with acting basely. argument continues with considerations of whether practical wisdom or mere opinion influences behavior, & idea that incontinence might involve false opinions.
3: To address incontinence, we must first explore if incontinent act knowingly. incontinent person may act under a state of passion, which affects their knowledge similarly to being drunk or mad. This involves two types of knowledge: universal & particular. Knowledge of universal truths does not always translate to particular actions, as passions can override this knowledge. This results in person acting against their better judgment due to an overpowering appetite or emotion. Thus, incontinence involves acting against what one knows to be right under influence of strong passions.
4: We need to determine if incontinence is universal or specific. Incontinence typically pertains to bodily pleasures like food & sex, which are necessary or desirable. Excess in these areas is labeled as incontinence specifically in relation to these pleasures, rather than generally. Those who are incontinent concerning bodily pleasures, but not other areas, are more commonly considered simply incontinent. self-indulgent person, who pursues pleasure excessively, is also seen as incontinent. distinction lies in whether one pursues pleasure or avoids pain by choice or against judgment, & whether pleasures pursued are of a noble or base nature.
5: Pleasures can be inherently pleasant, or made so by circumstances. Some are naturally pleasant, while others become so due to physical injury, bad nature, or habits. For instance, some primitive tribes enjoy raw or human flesh, or exhibit brutish behaviors like Phalaris’s acts. States of character resulting from diseases or habits, such as hair-plucking or sexual perversions, differ from natural incontinence. Natural incontinence is not same as brutishness or morbid conditions. A person exhibiting such states is not simply incontinent but may act in ways analogously similar to incontinence.
6: Incontinence related to anger is less disgraceful than appetite-related incontinence. Anger, although impulsive, can be guided by reason & argument. It reacts to perceived insults with a drive for revenge, while appetite responds to immediate pleasure. Anger is more excusable because it aligns with natural reactions, unlike appetite-driven excess. People are more forgiving of anger-induced actions compared to those driven by appetite, which can lead to more calculated & deceitful behaviors. Thus, appetite-induced incontinence is more disgraceful & considered vice-like, while anger-induced incontinence is seen as less severe.
7: Pleasures & pains can lead to various states of self-indulgence or temperance. Excessive indulgence in pleasures or avoidance of pain can lead to self-indulgence, while a balanced approach indicates temperance. People who avoid bodily pains by choice differ from those who suffer due to their nature. Self-indulgent individuals are more prone to regret because they follow excessive desires. Incontinence can be seen as a form of softness compared to more controlled endurance, with self-indulgence being more severe than incontinence. distinction lies in ability to resist or conquer desires.
8: Self-indulgent individuals are less likely to repent compared to incontinent ones, who are prone to regret their actions. Incontinence is intermittent, similar to a recurring illness, while vice is a more permanent state. Vice involves conscious wrongdoing, while incontinence reflects a failure to adhere to reason due to overpowering passions. Incontinent individuals, unlike those with fixed vices, can potentially be cured since they recognize their moral failures. Self-indulgence represents a deeper, more ingrained flaw compared to temporary lapses of incontinence.
9: A continent person follows right choice consistently, whereas an incontinent person abandons good choices. Some individuals stick to any choice, while others adhere to right choice. Strong-headed individuals, who resist persuasion, are similar to continent people but differ in their stubbornness towards arguments rather than appetites. Those who fail to maintain resolutions may not be incontinent if their failure stems from noble desires. continuum between self-indulgence & incontinence involves varying responses to pleasure, with continent person maintaining consistency regardless of their level of delight.
10: Incontinence involves failing to follow reason due to overpowering emotions, while self-indulgence is a persistent state of moral weakness. Continent individuals adhere to rational choices, while incontinent ones struggle with conflicting desires. Those who resist tempt ations successfully are considered continent, while those overwhelmed by them are incontinent. difference between incontinence & self-indulgence lies in their permanence & nature of emotions involved. Continent individuals are better at maintaining their moral standards compared to those who frequently succumb to their desires.
11: The study of pleasure & pain pertains to political philosophy, defining what is considered good or bad. Some argue that no pleasure is inherently good, while others believe some pleasures are good but not all. Arguments against pleasure as a good include: pleasure being a process, temperate individuals avoiding pleasure, & pleasures hindering thought. counterarguments state that pleasure can be good if it aligns with natural states & activities, & that pleasurable activities are not always detrimental. distinction lies in whether pleasure is a process or an activity of a natural state.
12: Pleasure may be good or bad based on context & individual states. Good may be defined differently for each person & situation. Pleasures that restore natural states are incidental & not purely pleasant. While some pleasures arise from bodily deficiencies, others, like contemplation, are genuinely fulfilling. idea that pleasure is merely a process is flawed; it should be seen as activity. argument that pleasure is inherently bad due to some unhealthy pleasures is countered by idea that not all pleasures are harmful, & even thinking can sometimes be detrimental.
13: Pain is universally considered bad, leading to conclusion that pleasure is inherently good. If some pleasures are bad, it does not negate that chief good could be a form of pleasure. Happiness, associated with pleasure, requires both internal & external goods. pursuit of pleasure by all beings suggests it may be chief good. Not all pleasures are same; people pursue pleasure differently based on their nature. argument that pleasure isn’t necessary for a good life overlooks that pleasure contributes to happiness, which requires unimpeded activity.
14: Bodily pleasures are often seen as less worthy than noble pleasures. Excessive pursuit of bodily pleasures is criticized, while necessary pleasures are questioned. Pleasure is pursued to counteract pain, but not all pleasures are inherently good; some are incidentally good or even harmful. pursuit of pleasure varies, & temperance is valued over mere indulgence. Controlling & understanding pleasure & pain contribute to a more stable & fulfilling life, contrasting instability caused by excessive pursuit of transient pleasures.
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1: A discussion of friendship is natural; it implies virtue & is crucial for living well. Friends are essential; without them, even wealth & power lose value. Friends offer opportunities for beneficence & help in guarding prosperity. They provide refuge in misfortune, aid in avoiding errors, & stimulate noble actions. Friendship is observed across species, showing its universal importance. It holds states together, & lawgivers prioritize it over justice. Friendship fosters unity & reduces factionalism. It’s praised as noble & linked to being good, enhancing one's life.
2: Friendship is debated; some see it as similarity, others as opposites. Euripides & Heraclitus discuss physical causes of friendship, while Empedocles contrasts them. inquiry here focuses on human character: can friendship exist between wicked people? Is there one type of friendship or multiple kinds? Previous discussions suggest different species of friendship, dependent on degrees of virtue & character. This examines nature of friendship & whether it can exist between individuals of varying moral standing.
3: Friendship types depend on object of love: good, pleasant, or useful. People love what is good or what seems good. Love can be for oneself or for others. True friendship involves mutual recognition & goodwill. It’s different from love for lifeless objects, where no reciprocal goodwill exists. Friendships require mutual recognition & a shared wish for each other’s good, distinguishing them from mere goodwill.
4: Friendship types align with things loved: utility, pleasure, or virtue. Friendships based on utility or pleasure are incidental, dissolving if benefit or pleasure ceases. Friendships for utility are common among old people, while young people seek pleasure. Perfect friendship, found in virtuous individuals, is enduring because it is based on goodness. Such friendships are rare & require time & familiarity to develop.
5: Friendship involves living together & mutual benefits, but distance doesn’t always break it. Absence might lead to forgetting, as seen in "out of sight, out of mind". Sour or old individuals struggle to make friends. Friendship is characterized by shared time & activities, making those who live together true friends. truest friendship involves good people who are desirable for both goodness & pleasantness.
6: Friendships between sour or elderly individuals are less common. They don’t easily form bonds because they don’t delight in each other or enjoy spending time together. Friendship requires mutual enjoyment & presence, which sour or elderly individuals may lack. However, they may still bear goodwill & offer aid, though they don't necessarily qualify as friends due to absence of these vital aspects.
7: True friendship, like deep love, cannot be extensive; one cannot have perfect friendships with many. Genuine friendship requires significant familiarity & personal connection. Although many people can be pleasant or useful, deep friendship demands more, & it is challenging to please or be pleased by many individuals simultaneously.
8: Friendship for pleasure involves mutual delight & is akin to youthful friendships where generosity is prominent. Utility-based friendships are less about mutual pleasure & more about practical benefits. Those who are happy prefer pleasant friends over useful ones, as pleasure sustains them better than mere utility.
9: Friendships often involve inequality, such as between rulers & subjects or parents & children. These relationships differ in nature & love should be proportional to merit. True friendship requires some level of equality, though exact equality isn't always necessary or possible, especially in cases of great disparity.
10: Constitutional forms include monarchy, aristocracy, & timocracy. Monarchy is ideal but can degrade into tyranny, where rulers act for personal gain. Aristocracy can shift to oligarchy, while timocracy may devolve into democracy. Households reflect these forms; for example, paternal rule resembles monarchy, while rule by masters or unequal partners can be tyrannical or oligarchic.
11: Friendships in different constitutions involve varying degrees of justice & benefits. A king’s friendship with subjects includes excess benefits, similar to parental care. Superiority defines these relationships: kings over subjects, ancestors over descendants, & fathers over children. Such friendships imply merit-based justice, with benefits & duties proportionate to one's role. In timocracy, equality among citizens ensures balanced friendship. In tyrannies, friendship is minimal due to lack of common ground & justice. Democracies have greater friendship as citizens are more equal & share common interests, fostering stronger bonds.
12: Friendships of kindred & comrades differ from mere associative friendships. Kindred friendships rely on parental bonds, where parents love children as extensions of themselves, & children reciprocate over time. Such bonds strengthen with shared upbringing & age similarity. Friendships among siblings are akin to comrades due to shared upbringing & education. Marital friendships combine utility, pleasure, & virtue, with children serving as a bond. Friendship in marriage involves mutual help & is rooted in both emotional & practical aspects, though children strengthen this bond.
13: Friendships vary by equality or superiority. Equals share mutual respect, while unequals adjust their expectations based on superiority or inferiority. Complaints are common in utility-based friendships, where individuals feel shortchanged. Virtuous friendships, however, involve goodwill without complaints, focusing on giver’s intent. Utility-based friendships measure return based on receiver’s benefit, while virtue-based ones consider giver’s purpose. Complaints arise when relationships are dissolved without matching initial type of friendship, whether moral or legal, impacting perceived fairness of exchange.
14: In friendships of superiority, each party expects different returns. superior expects more honor, while inferior anticipates practical benefits. This dynamic mirrors constitutional arrangements, where public benefits & honors are distributed based on contributions. Unequal relationships should balance honor & gain: superior gets honor, inferior benefits. In constitutions, contributions affect honors & wealth distribution. Individuals repay what they can, recognizing they can’t fully match their debt. Such relationships emphasize honor & gratitude, acknowledging that complete repayment is often unattainable.
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9 - 1: In dissimilar friendships, proportion maintains equality. For instance, craftsmen receive payment in money, a common measure. In romantic relationships, if love is unreciprocated or qualities expected are not met, relationship may dissolve. key issue arises when one party's expectations differ from other's. Proportional return is essential, & it’s just for recipient to determine worth of service or gift. Discrepancies in perceived value & actual benefit can lead to dissatisfaction & disputes, reflecting complexity in valuing & fulfilling agreements in friendships & services.
9 - 2: Deciding preferences in service & gratitude can be complex. Whether to prioritize a father, a friend, or a good man varies based on circumstances. Generally, one should repay benefits rather than merely obliging friends, especially when loans or significant services are involved. If a gift is noble or necessary, it may warrant preference over other obligations. Adjusting returns based on nature of gift & recipient's worth is crucial, as fairness involves balancing personal relationships with practical considerations & expectations.
9 - 3: Friendships based on utility or pleasure may end if those attributes change. Complaints arise if one pretends to love for character but values utility or pleasure. If a friend becomes worse, breaking off friendship is reasonable. If a friend improves vastly, maintaining relationship might be difficult. Friendships should be evaluated based on enduring qualities, & changes in virtue or character can necessitate reevaluating relationship. Fairness & previous bonds should influence decisions, especially when dealing with significant moral differences.
9 - 4: Friendly relations mirror self-relations. Friendship involves wishing good for friend as one does for oneself, sharing joys & sorrows. Good men wish themselves well & find pleasure in their own company. In contrast, wicked individuals are divided internally & do not enjoy their own company. They may seek companionship to escape self-loathing. True friendship aligns with self-love & virtue, whereas those lacking internal harmony struggle with self-love & friendship, emphasizing importance of moral integrity in forming lasting relationships.
9 - 5: Goodwill differs from friendship; it’s a form of friendly feeling but lacks depth & mutual involvement of true friendship. Goodwill can be sudden & superficial, as seen in competitors. It is an initial stage that might lead to friendship, similar to how physical attraction precedes love. True friendship requires more than goodwill; it demands intimacy & shared commitment. Goodwill is a precursor but not a substitute for deeper, active engagement that characterizes genuine friendship.
6: Unanimity means agreeing on what is to their interest, not merely having same opinions. A city is unanimous when all agree on beneficial actions & work together for shared goals. Disagreement happens when parties want different outcomes, leading to faction rather than unanimity. True unanimity is when all parties agree on actions & their implementation, reflecting political friendship focused on mutual interests & shared goals. Unanimity is rooted in aligning on important matters & successfully achieving common objectives, rather than just having similar opinions.
7: Benefactors often love those they help more than helped love them, seen as paradoxical. Benefactors, unlike creditors, form a genuine bond with recipients, valuing their own contributions. This deeper affection is rooted in intrinsic value of creation & existence, reflecting love for one’s handiwork. While debtors wish for creditors' absence, benefactors appreciate their contributions as they manifest their own values & efforts. bond stems from valuing existence & activity, with benefactors loving their work more than recipients do.
8: The debate on self-love versus loving others questions whether one should love oneself more or others. Critics argue that self-lovers are selfish, focusing solely on personal gain. However, true self-love involves pursuing noble actions, aligning with virtue & reason. This self-love prioritizes noblest aspects of life, benefiting oneself & others. good man loves himself by acting virtuously, while wicked man harms himself & others. Ultimately, loving oneself in a virtuous manner aligns with promoting noble actions & mutual benefits.
9: The necessity of friends for happy person is debated. Some argue that a self-sufficient, supremely happy person needs no friends, having all goods. However, friends are seen as valuable, enhancing one's life & activity. Happiness is linked to living actively with others, not in solitude. Friends help maintain continuous, pleasurable activity & provide support in virtue. Virtuous friends are naturally desirable, contributing to one’s overall happiness & active engagement, reinforcing that even supremely happy need friends to fully enjoy life’s virtues.
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1: Pleasure is closely tied to human nature, guiding education through pleasure & pain. Enjoying & disliking right things impacts virtue & happiness. Pleasure’s role in life is disputed: some view it as good, others as bad. Critics argue pleasure is aimed at even by those who denounce it. Arguments about pleasure should align with facts, not merely feelings.
2: Eudoxus saw pleasure as chief good since everything aims at it. He argued pleasure, unlike pain, is inherently desirable. Plato countered, claiming good cannot be enhanced by adding pleasure. This suggests pleasure isn't ultimate good, as it does not meet criteria of being fundamentally desirable on its own.
3: Pleasure is not necessarily a good just because it is pleasant. If pleasure admits of degrees, so might virtues. comparison of pleasure to qualities like health suggests it might not be indeterminate. Some pleasures are not linked to replenishment or pain but are still valuable & distinct based on their sources.
4: Pleasure is complete in itself & does not constitute movement or coming into being. Unlike movement, which requires time & stages, pleasure is whole & immediate. Thus, pleasure is fundamentally different from movement, completing activities without being a process or transition.
5: Pleasures vary by activities they complete. Different activities, like those involving thought or senses, are completed by specific pleasures. Pleasures enhance & are tied to their respective activities. Distractions from other pleasures can hinder one’s focus on their current activity.
6: We have discussed virtues, forms of friendship, & pleasures. Now, let's outline happiness, ultimate end of human nature. Happiness isn't a disposition—one can be unhappy while sleeping or enduring misfortunes. It must be an activity desirable in itself, like virtuous actions, which are good for their own sake. Pleasant amusements are chosen for their own sake but lead to neglect. Happiness lies in virtuous activities, not in amusements or leisure. To amuse oneself to work seems silly. Hence, happiness isn’t found in amusement but in virtuous activity, which is more fulfilling & self-sufficient.
7: If happiness is an activity in accordance with virtue, it should align with highest virtue, which is reason. activity of reason, particularly contemplation, aligns with perfect happiness. This activity is continuous & pleasurable, as philosophical wisdom is both best & most continuous activity. Contemplative activity, being self-sufficient & most pleasant for its own sake, represents complete happiness. While gods are thought to be happiest, their happiness is not tied to practical virtues but to contemplation, which aligns with best aspect of human nature. Therefore, contemplative activity represents highest form of happiness.
8: Secondary happiness comes from a life of other virtues, which align with our human nature. Virtues like justice & bravery are human & arise from our bodily nature. While practical wisdom connects with moral virtues, highest virtue is more about reason. Virtues tied to bodily needs, like money or power, are less central than those linked to reason. Contemplative activity requires less external support, reflecting divine aspect of human nature. Thus, a life in accordance with reason & contemplation is highest form of happiness, surpassing practical virtues that require external goods.
9: If we've covered virtues, friendship, & pleasure, should we conclude? Merely knowing virtue is insufficient; we must practice it. Arguments alone don't make one virtuous; character must be shaped by practice. Some believe virtue comes from nature, others from habit or teaching. Nature's role is divine, while teaching affects cultivated soul. Passion often resists argument; true virtue involves a pre-existing kinship to goodness. Proper upbringing & laws are crucial for developing virtue from a young age. Thus, practical engagement with virtue & right upbringing are essential for achieving true goodness & happiness.
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